Cooley's Cyclopaedia of Practical Receipts Volume I Part 102

1. _Folded_, which is done correctly by observing the 'marks' or 'signatures' at the bottom of the pages. As the sheets are folded they are laid upon each other in proper order, and are ready to undergo--

2. The operation of beating. This is performed by either laying them upon a large stone and striking them with a heavy smoothed-faced hammer, or by pa.s.sing them through a rolling-press. The former method is usually adopted in the small way, and the latter on the large scale.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

3. The sheets are next fastened to bands, which is done by taking them up one by one, and sewing them to pieces of cord, stretched in a little frame screwed or fastened to the counter or table, called the sewing press. (See _engr._) The number of bands used is generally 6 for a folio, 5 for a quarto, and so on proportionally, less than 4 being seldom employed even for small sizes. The ends of the cords being cut off to within about 2 inches of the back, the sheets are ready for--

4. _Glueing._ The back being knocked into shape with a hammer, and the sheets placed in the cutting-press, which is then slightly screwed up, melted glue is thinly and evenly applied. After a short time, to permit it to become sufficiently set and hard, the book is removed from the press, and the back properly adjusted with a hammer, when it is again put into the cutting-press, where it is screwed up very tight, and is then ready for--

5. _Cutting._ The instrument employed for this purpose is of a peculiar shape, and called a plough or plough-knife, which consists of a stout flat knife, double-edged at the 'cutting point,' firmly set in a kind of frame, in which it may be adjusted by screws.

6. _Affixing the boards._ The bands are now sc.r.a.ped out fine at the ends, and fastened to the pasteboard intended to form the covers, which is then properly adjusted, and further shaped, if necessary, with a large pair of shears. The edges now undergo the operation of--

7. _Sprinkling_, _gilding_, or other adornment. The first is performed with a stiff brush made of hog's bristles, dipped in the colour; the brush being held in the one hand, and the hairs moved with the other, so as to scatter the colour in minute drops equally over the surface.

8. The external covering of leather, fancy cloth, or paper, is now applied, having been previously soaked in paste, to make it properly adhere. One or more of the blank leaves of the book are next pasted against the inside of the cover, to screen the ends that are turned over when the book is finished; or for choice work, is handed to a 'finisher'

for--

9. _Lettering_, _gilding_, &c. Ordinary gold-leaf is applied by means of white of egg, the pattern being given by pressure with heated bra.s.s tools, having the design or letters on their surfaces. The whole is then glazed over with white of egg and polished.

10. _Burnishing book edges._ This is performed with a wolf's or dog's tooth, or a steel burnisher. Place the books in a screw press, with boards on each side of them, and other boards distributed between each volume.

First rub the edges well with the tooth to give them a l.u.s.tre. After sprinkling, or staining, or when the edges have become dry, burnish the front; then turning the press, burnish the edges at the top and bottom of the volume. Burnish the gilt edges in the same manner, after having applied the gold; but observe in gilding to put the gold first upon the front, and allow it to dry; and on no account commence the burnishing until the gold is quite dry.

The succession of the above operations sometimes slightly varies with the workmen, and with the nature of the binding. The examination of a bound book during their perusal will, however, render the whole quite familiar to the reader.

There are several varieties of binding, of which only the following deserve notice here:--

BOARDS. A book rather loosely done up, without cutting the edges, and covered with coloured paper or cloth, is said to be in 'boards.'

CLOTH, CLOTH-BINDING. This is the style of binding in which the majority of works are now issued. It admits of great neatness and even beauty, is cheap, and when well executed is very durable.--The prepared cloth (hard-glazed or varnished calico), cut by a pattern to the proper size, is pa.s.sed rapidly between the engraved cylinders of a rolling-press, by which the design is given to it. Paste is now applied to each piece of cloth, which is then placed over the volume previously prepared to receive it. In many cases the covers are prepared separately before being embossed, and are afterwards fastened in the finished state to the book by means of a piece of canvas or calico previously affixed to its back for the purpose, when all that is required is to paste the ends of it to the inside of the boards, with the last blank leaf over it. Books in cloth are seldom cut at the edges, unless they are otherwise highly finished.

HALF-BINDING. Books forwarded in boards, and finished with leather backs and corners, are said to be 'half-bound.'

LEATHER-BINDING. A book is only said to be 'bound,' or 'fully-bound,' when both its backs and sides are wholly covered with one piece of leather.--The leather is wetted by immersion in water, wrung or squeezed, stretched on a smooth board, cut to the proper size, pared thin on the edges, and covered with paste. It is then applied to the book (previously forwarded in boards, and cut), drawn tightly over it, turned down on the inside, rubbed smooth with a folding-stick, and otherwise adjusted; after which it is placed in some suitable situation, at a distance from a fire, to dry.

Rough calf requires to be damped on the grain side with a sponge and water before pasting and covering.

Russia-leather is well soaked in water for an hour, taken out, beaten, and rubbed; after which the paste is well worked into the flesh side before covering.

Morocco is first 'grained' by rubbing it on a board, with the grain side inside, and, after being pasted, left to soak for about a quarter of an hour; after which it is drawn on with a piece of woollen cloth, to preserve the grain.

Roan is either soaked in water, or left to soak when pasted.

SCHOOL-BINDING. Originally applied to school-books strongly sewn and 'done up' in sheep-skin, which was either left of a plain brown, or sprinkled or marbled with copperas water. Similar works of a cheaper cla.s.s are now often 'done up' in canvas, brown-holland, and even coa.r.s.e and strong coloured glazed calico.

_Concluding Remarks._ Numerous patents for improvements in binding books, several of which possess very great merit and usefulness, have been obtained during the last 30 years. Among these, one known as 'Hanc.o.c.k's Patent Binding,' from its extreme novelty, simplicity, durability, and inexpensiveness, deserves a pa.s.sing notice here. By Mr Wm. Hanc.o.c.k's method the sheets are folded in double leaves, and by being properly placed together and adjusted (by setting them vertically, with the edges forming the back of the book downwards, in a concave mould so formed that whilst giving shape it may leave the whole breadth, and nearly the whole length exposed), and firmly secured by a few turns of packthread, the book is subjected to the action of a press, and a strong and quick-drying solution of india rubber is smeared over the back with the finger, when the whole is left for 3 or 4 hours, or longer, to dry. The operation is repeated as often as necessary, after which fillets of cloth are cemented on with the same varnish, and the book is ready to have the boards attached. The sheets of books that cannot be folded in 'double leaves' may be strongly st.i.tched through, separately, before adjusting them in the mould. In this way several of the usual operations of binding are dispensed with. We most willingly bear testimony to the strength and durability of this method, as well as to the great convenience it affords in allowing the books to open perfectly flat upon a table, or to be distorted in any possible manner, without injury to their backs. It is, undoubtedly, the best way of binding books for travellers. The Editor of the last edition of this work once had a large trunk of books, among which was a ma.s.sive volume bound on Hanc.o.c.k's plan. All the rest were nearly torn to pieces by a few months' journey, but this one remained uninjured even after five years, during which time it accompanied him in his travels, extending, collectively, to upwards of 23,000 miles. See GILDING, MARBLING, SPRINKLES, STAINS, &c.

=BOONEKAMP OF MAAGBITTER.= Dried orange berries, 100 grammes; bitter orange peel, 30 grammes; gentian root, 60 grammes; cascarilla bark, 30 grammes; turmeric, 15 grammes; cinnamon, 25 grammes; cloves, 15 grammes; rhubarb, 7-1/2 grammes; 90 per cent. spirit, 750 grammes: water, 1650 grammes; star-anise oil, 40 drops; sugar, 250 grammes; digested, expressed, and filtered. (Hager.)

=BOOTS and SHOES.= The cleaning of boots and shoes forms no unimportant part of the domestic duties of a large establishment; as on it being properly performed depend both their appearance and durability. A votary of St Crispin, in whom we place considerable reliance, a.s.sures us that to effect this object in the best style, all that is necessary is to employ very little blacking (merely enough to moisten the surface of the leather), and to brush it off whilst still damp. Never make the surface wet, nor allow the blacking to dry before applying the polishing brush.

For this purpose a portion only of the boot or shoe should be attended to at a time. The dirt is, of course, to be carefully brushed off before applying the blacking. When it is desired to restore the shape of a boot or shoe, as well as to clean it, boot trees may be used. Of the brushes, we are told that there should be at least three--one (dirt brush) with bristles stiff, but not wiry nor scratchy, to remove mud and dirt; another (blacking-brush), with fine, flexible hair, and plenty of it, for applying the blacking; and a third (polishing-brush), covered with long, fine, springy, and slightly stiff hair, for giving the polish. The employment of inferior or worn-out brushes is said to be false economy, and proves particularly destructive to the lighter cla.s.ses of leather.

The occasional use of a little oil or grease to the uppers of boots and shoes increases their softness and durability, as well as the 'depth,' but not the brilliancy of the polish, from common blacking. For this purpose some good tallow or 'dubbing' may be used; the absorption being aided by a very gentle heat. The soles or bottoms of new boots and shoes may be thoroughly saturated with similar substances, by which means their durability will be fully doubled. The common practice among the shoemakers is to moisten the surface of the leather with a wet sponge before applying the oil or grease; by which (they say) its pores are opened and its absorbent powers increased.

_Varnish for Boots and Shoes._--1. Boil together in a pipkin one pint of linseed oil; 1/2 _lb._ of mutton suet, the same quant.i.ty of beeswax, and a small piece of resin; and when the mixture becomes milk-warm, apply it with a hair brush. After two applications the articles will become waterproof. Great caution must be exercised in melting the above ingredients, lest the mixture boils over, and so give rise to a conflagration.

2. Common tar may be made warm and brushed over the soles of boots or shoes. These latter are then put near the fire so that the tar may be absorbed. When the absorption has taken place, a second or third application may be given with advantage. This application is not suitable for the upper leathers.

3. India-rubber varnish will be found very useful for anointing the upper leather of boots and shoes; but the lower parts, which are exposed to the wear and tear caused by friction with the ground, are but little benefited by its application.

Patent-leather boots and shoes are best cleaned with a little sweet oil or milk (preferably the first), the dirt having been previously removed in the usual way.

India-rubber goloshes and overshoes may be cleaned with a sponge or brush, and water, care being taken not to wet the linings. The same applies to gutta percha. See BLACKING, LEATHER, WATERPROOFING, &c.

The reasons why boots and shoes so commonly cause corns, and fatigue, and give pain in wear, are explained in our article on the FEET (which _see_).

Paramount in importance to the appearance of boots or shoes on the wearer is the desideratum, not only of having them so made as to ensure personal comfort in walking, but additionally to have them so constructed as to protect the feet from wet during damp and rainy weather. The evils arising from getting the feet damp cannot be overstated; amongst them are to be included--cold, cough, bronchitis, inflammation of the lungs, and rheumatism. In those inheriting a const.i.tutional consumptive taint, a cold caught from wearing damp or leaky boots has very frequently been known to have precipitated the disease, that has ended in more or less speedy death. Hence arises not only the duty of changing damp boots or shoes as soon as ever the opportunity offers, but the wisdom of adopting the preventive precaution of wearing them of such stout construction as to be impervious to water during rainy weather. If the dangers arising from a neglect of this advice are visited with such serious consequences upon adults and grown persons, they affect infants and children with even far greater intensity, because of the much more tender and sensitive organisation of the latter. It therefore behoves every mother not only to see that her children are shod with good thick boots or shoes, but to take especial care that whenever these are damp they are removed at once.

Mr Chava.s.se, in his excellent work, 'Counsel to a Mother,' recommends "boots for walking out of doors and shoes for the house." He adds, "that the constant wearing of boots in the house is weakening to the ankles, as weakening as tight lacing is to the waist; indeed it acts much in the same way, namely, by wasting away, by pressure, the ligaments of the ankles, as stays waste away the muscles of the waist." In support of his argument he quotes Dr Humphrey, who says, "The notion is in both instances fortified by the fact that those persons who have been accustomed to the pressure either upon the ankle or upon the waist, feel a want of it when it is removed, and are uncomfortable without it. They forget, or are unconscious, that the feeling of the want has been engendered by the appliance, and that had they never resorted to the latter, they would never have experienced the former. The deduction to be drawn from Dr Hutchinson's opinion is that no more fertile source of weak ankles exists than that of wearing laced boots during childhood. Boots with elastic sides, as exerting much more equal pressure, and allowing full scope for the ankles to play, are far preferable to tightly laced-up boots.

=BOOT-POW'DER.= French chalk reduced to powder by sc.r.a.ping or grating.

Used to facilitate the 'getting on' of new or tight boots, a little of it being rubbed on the insides of the backs, heels, and insteps.

=BOOT-TOP LIQ'UID.= _Syn._ BOOT'-TOP COMPOSI"TION. There are numerous articles of this cla.s.s extant, but, with few exceptions, they are most unchemical mixtures, not infrequently containing ingredients which are either unnecessary, or opposed to the action of the rest. The following are examples:--

_Prep._ _a._ WHITE-TOP:--1. Oxalic acid and white vitriol, of each 1 _oz._; water, 1-1/2 pint; dissolve. It is applied with a sponge, the leather having been previously washed with water; after a short time it is washed off with water, when the boot-tops are either dried in a current of air or by a gentle heat; they are lastly either polished with a brush, so as to appear like new leather, or they are left rough, as the case may require.

2. Sour milk, 1 quart; b.u.t.ter of antimony, cream of tartar, tartaric acid, and burnt alum, of each 2 oz.; mix.

3. Sour milk (skimmed), 3 pints; cream of tartar, 2 _oz._; alum and oxalic acid, of each 1 _oz._

4. Alum, cream of tartar, magnesia, and oxalic acid, of each 1 _oz._; salt of sorrel and sugar lead, of each 1/4 _oz._; water, 1 quart. The preceding are for white tops.

_b._ BROWN-TOP:--Alum, annatto, and oxalic acid, of each 1 _oz._; isingla.s.s and sugar of lead, of each 1/2 _oz._; salt of sorrel, 1/4 _oz._; water, 1 quart; boil for 10 minutes.

_c._ Saffron, 15 grains; boiling water, 2 _oz._; infuse and strain. Add tincture of rhubarb 1-1/2 _oz._; concentrated infusion of rhubarb, to make up to 4 _oz._

=BORACIC ACID= (-ras'-). H_{3}BO_{3}. _Syn._ BORIC ACID, SEDATIVE SALT, S. S. OF VIT'RIOL; ACIDUM BORACIc.u.m (-ras'-), L.; ACIDE BORACIQUE, A.

BORIQUE, Fr.; BORAXSaURE, &c., Ger. The pure acid is obtained from common borax. That of commerce is extracted from the boracic acid lagoons of Tuscany.

_Prep._ 1. Borax, 1 part; boiling water, 4 parts; dissolve, and add sulphuric acid until the solution acquires a distinctly acid reaction, for which purpose about 1/2 the weight of the borax will be required. As the solution cools, crystals of BORACIC ACID will be deposited. These may be purified by placing them on a filter, and washing them with a little very cold water, followed by re-solution, in boiling water, and recrystallisation. Nearly pure.

2. As the last, but subst.i.tuting hydrochloric acid for the sulphuric acid, there ordered. Very nearly pure.

3. By exposing the product of the first crystallisation of either of the preceding formulae to heat in a platinum crucible, and redissolving and recrystallising the residuum. Chemically pure. Used in a.n.a.lysis.

_Prop., &c._ Odourless; bitter-tasted; dissolves in 25 times its weight of cold water, and in 3 times its weight of boiling water; very soluble in alcohol, which then burns with a bright green flame; reddens litmus; browns turmeric-paper (properties characteristic of this substance); when strongly heated it forms a brittle gla.s.s (VITRIFIED BORACIC ACID) on cooling. The crystallised acid contains 3 atoms, or 435% of water. Its salts are called BO"RATES.