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During an houras drive: William R. Smyser, Kennedy and the Berlin Wall: aA h.e.l.l of a Lot Better Than a War,a Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009, 101a"103, 174; aWir machen Berlin dichta"Die Berliner Mauer (III) Der. 13. August,a Der Spiegel, 10/16/1989; Mara et al., Kontrollpunkt Kohlhasenbrck.
The diplomats had gathered: Gelb, The Berlin Wall, 161a"162.
At 11:00 a.m. Berlin time: DNSA, East German Regime to Seal East Berlin from West, Confidential, Cable 176, August 13, 1961, 1 a.m.; DNSA, Summary of Events in Berlin from Early Morning to Mid-Afternoon, Confidential, Cable 186, August 13, 1961, 10 p.m.; Department of State, Central Files, 862.181/8-1361, in FRUS, 1961a"1963, vol. XIV, Berlin Crisis, 1961a"1962, Doc. 104.
West Berlinersa mood: Interview with Klaus-Detlef Brunzel, Berlin, October 23, 2008.
Before long, the West Berlin fury: Interview with Klaus-Detlef Brunzel, Berlin, October 23, 2008.
General Watson: aCommandant in Berlin,a New York Times, 08/14/1961.
There were also times: Gelb, The Berlin Wall, 165.
Early that morning, Watson: Gelb, The Berlin Wall, 165; Cate, The Ides of August, 301a"302, 275.
Lieutenant Colonel Thomas McCord: Catudal, Kennedy and the Berlin Wall Crisis, 229a"230, 232.
All eyes had then turned: Letter from Colonel Ernest von Pawel to Catudal, August 3, 1977, in Catudal, Kennedy and the Berlin Wall Crisis, 234.
The deputy chief: Wyden, Wall, 92, from Pawel interview; Catudal, Kennedy and the Berlin Wall Crisis, 229a"230, 232a"235.
aThe Soviet 19th Motorizeda: Gelb, The Berlin Wall, 160.
Adam recalled a more innocent: Interview with Adam Kellett-Long, London, October 15a"16, 2008.
Under four-power agreements: Smyser, Kennedy and the Berlin Wall, 106; Howard Trivers, Three Crises in American Foreign Affairs and a Continuing Revolution. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1972, 24a"25.
When he first heard: Cate, The Ides of August, 162a"163.
Then he set off: Deutsches Rundfunkarchiv, Stimmen des 20. Jahrhunderts CDa"Berlin, 13 August 1961, produced by Deutsches Historisches Museum Berlin and Deutsches Rundfunkarchiv Frankfurt am Main and Potsdam-Babelsberg: http://www.dra.de/publikationen/cds/stimmen/cd25.html.
Lochner the next day showed: Smyser, Kennedy and the Berlin Wall, 115a"116; Wyden, Wall, 166a"167; Lothar Kettenacker, Germany 1989: In the Aftermath of the Cold War. London: Pearson Longman, 2009, 51.
From noon on Sat.u.r.day: Washington Post, 08/14/1961, 08/15/1961; Chicago Daily Tribune, 08/14/1961.
Honecker phoned Ulbricht: Washington Post, 08/14/1961.
Khrushchev would reflect: Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 455.
15. THE WALL: DESPERATE DAYS.
aWhy would Khrushcheva: OaDonnell and Powers, with McCarthy, aJohnny, We Hardly Knew Ye,a 303.
aThe Russiansafeela: Arthur M. Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy and His Times. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1978/2002, 430.
Until August 13, Litfin: aErstes Maueropfer Gnter Litfina"aTod durch fremde Hand,aa Der Spiegel (online), 09/02/2007; Hans-Hermann Hertle, Die Todesopfer an der Berliner Mauer 1961a"1989: Ein biographisches Handbuch. Berlin: Christoph Links, 2009, 37a"39.
The two brothers then reflected: Christian F. Ostermann, Uprising in East Germany 1953: The Cold War, the German Question, and the First Major Upheaval Behind the Iron Curtain. Budapest and New York: Central European University Press, 2001, 169.
He closely followed: aScores Flee to West Despite Red Guards,a Washington Post, 08/15/1961.
Gnter Litfin would be the first: Tagesspiegel, 08/25/1961.
By comparison, the East Berliner: Cate, The Ides of August, 399.
A little more than two days: Wyden, Wall, 221.
CBS correspondent Daniel Schorr: Wyden, Wall, 220; Daniel Schorr Papers, Library of Congress.
A fluke of prewar planning: Taylor, The Berlin Wall, 186a"187.
As a result, Berlinas Cold War: Regine Hildebrandt, oral history interview, Gedenksttte Berliner Mauer; also see www.dradio.de: Hrbeispiel: Erinnerungen an den Bau der Berliner Mauer vor 40 Jahren: Regine Hildebrandt (SPD), Berlinerin.
Like many of the soldiers: Jrgen Petschull, Die Mauer: August 1961: Zwlf Tage zwischen Krieg und Frieden. Hamburg: Gruner + Jahr, 1981, 149a"152.
The young man raced off: Peter Leibing, oral history interview, October 8, 2001, www.jungefreiheit.de, Moritz Schwarz, aaNa, springt der?a Peter Leibing ber die spektakulre Flucht des DDR-Grenzers Conrad Schumann und das Foto seines Lebens.
So while Brandt prepared: Horst Osterheld, aIch gehe nicht leichten Herzensaa Adenauers letzte Kanzlerjahre: Ein dok.u.mentarischer Bericht. Mainz: Matthias-Grnewald, 1986, 59a"60; Konrad Adenauer, Teegesprche 1959a"1961 (Rhndorfer Ausgabe), ed. Hanns Jrgen Ksters. Berlin: Siedler, 1988, 541, 546.
Within forty-eight hours: Donald P. Steury, ed., On the Front Lines of the Cold War: Doc.u.ments on the Intelligence War in Berlin, 1946 to 1961. Washington, D.C.: CIA, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1999; Current Intelligence Weekly Summary, August 17, 1961, 576a"582: VII-6: CIWS: Berlin, August 17, 1961 (MORI No. 28205), 582.
British Prime Minister Macmillan, the ally: London Times, August 26, 1961.
However, Adenaueras response: Heinrich Krone, Tagebcher. Vol. 2: 1961a"1966. Ed. Hans-Otto Kleinmann. Dsseldorf: Forschungen und Quellen zur Zeitgeschichte, 2003, 15; Konrad Adenauer, Erinnerungen 1959a"1963 (Fragmente). Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1968, 122.
Only at that point: Archiv fr Christlich-Demokratische Politik, Aufzeichnung der Unterredung Adenaueras mit Smirnow, August 16, 1961, N. L. Globke Papers, I-070-(2/1.1); Hans-Peter Schwarz, Konrad Adenauer. Vol. 2: The Statesman, 1952a"1967, trans. Geoffrey Penny. Providence, RI: Berghahn Books, 1997, 540a"541 (English trans. of Adenauer. Vol. 2: Der Staatsmann: 1952a"1967. Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1991).
Less than forty-eight hours: Prittie, Konrad Adenauer, 286; Christian Science Monitor, Washington Post, New York Times, 08/16/1961; New York Times, 08/30/1961.
Brandt, who until then: Peter Merseburger, w.i.l.l.y Brandt 1913a"1992: Visionr und Realist. Stuttgart and Munich: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 2002, 406a"407; Die Zeit, 08/18/1961.
Brandt realized that perhaps: New York Times, 08/17/1961; Washington Post, 08/17/1961; Bild-Zeitung, 08/16/1961.
After wiping the sweat: Archiv Deutschlandradio, Die Zeit im Funk, RIAS, Rede von w.i.l.l.y Brandt auf einer Protestkundgebung vor dem Rathaus Schneberg, Ausschnitte (excerpt of w.i.l.l.y Brandt speech to protesters at Schneberg/West Berlin city hall), August, 16, 1961: www.chronik-der-mauer.de/index.php/de/Media/VideoPopup/day/16/field/audio_video/id/15023/month/August/oldAction/Detail/oldModule/Chronical/year/1961.
He considered the letter from Mayor: FRUS, 1961a"1963, vol. XIV, Berlin Crisis, 1961a"1962, Doc. 117, Telegram from the Mission at Berlin to the Department of State, Berlin, August 16, 1961, midnight.
aTrust?a Kennedy spat: Petschull, Die Mauer, 157; Wyden, Wall, 224; Jean Edward Smith, The Defense of Berlin, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1963, 283a"284; Washington, D.C., Daily News, 08/17/1961; Washington, D.C., Evening Star, 08/18/1961.
The State Department: Washington, D.C., Daily News, 08/17/1961; Washington, D.C., Evening Star, 08/18/1961.
Brandt would later take credit: Petschull, Die Mauer, 159; Hermann Zolling and Uwe Bahnsen, Kalter Winter im August. Die Berlin-Krise 1961a"1963. Ihre Hintergrnde und Folgen. Oldenburg and Hamburg: Gerhard Stalling, 1967, 147.
Kennedy came to accept: FRUS, 1961a"1963, vol. XIV, Berlin Crisis, 1961a"1962, Doc. 120, Letter from President Kennedy to Governing Mayor Brandt, Washington, August 18, 1961; JFKL, NSF, Germany, Berlin, Brandt Correspondence, Secret.
Brandt read Kennedyas response: w.i.l.l.y Brandt, Erinnerungen. Frankfurt am Main: Propylen, and Zurich: Ferenczy, 1989, 58, 63; Merseburger, w.i.l.l.y Brandt, 405.
aWhy would Khrushchev put upa: OaDonnell and Powers, with McCarthy, aJohnny, We Hardly Knew Ye,a 303.
Kennedy had little sympathy: James Reston, aHyannisporta"A Cool Summer Visitor from Washington,a New York Times, 09/06/1961.
In the first days: JFKL, Dr. Wilhelm Grewe OH, November 2, 1966, Paris; Reston, aHyannisporta"A Cool Summer Visitor from Washington.a Khrushchev also reflected later: Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Glasnost Tapes, 170.
Khrushchev believed: Taubman, Khrushchev, 506; Sergei N. Khrushchev, Krizisy i Rakety, vol. 1, 132a"135.
Khrushchev concluded beyond any doubt: Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, 502a"505, 509.
More dramatic yet: aRussia Exhibits Atomic Infantry,a New York Times, 08/18/1961; Fursenko and Naftali, Khrushchevas Cold War, 385.
af.u.c.ked againa: Wyden, Wall, 246; Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, 459; Beschloss, The Crisis Years, 291.
Bobby recalled what Chip: Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy and His Times, 429a"430, citing RFK Papers, RFK, dictated September 1, 1961.
It was not the first time Vice President: Theodore C. Sorensen, Kennedy. New York: HarperCollins, 1965, 594.
Johnson grew all the more: Dallek, An Unfinished Life, 427; Petschull, Die Mauer, 161a"162; OaDonnell and Powers, with McCarthy, aJohnny, We Hardly Knew Ye,a 303.
During their overnight flight: Cate, The Ides of August, 405a"407; JFKL, Lucius D. Clay OH; Lucius D. Clay OH (Columbia Oral History Project).
Speaking to the West Berlin: Wyden, Wall, 229; aText of VP Johnsonas Address in West Berlin,a Washington Post, 08/20/1961; New York Times, 08/22/1961.
aThe city was likea: a300,000 Applaud,a New York Times, 08/20/1961.
For Kennedy, the troop: Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, 395; Sorensen, Kennedy, 594.
British Prime Minister: Macmillan, Pointing the Way, 1959a"1961, 393.
The operationas commander: William D. Ellis and Thomas J. Cunningham, Clarke of St. Vith: The Sergeantsa General. Cleveland: Dillon/Liederbach, 1974, 260a"261.
For all the details his superiors: Wyden, Wall, 230a"232.
Colonel Johns had never seen: New York Times, 08/21/1961.
The Soviet response: aBerlin Is Called a G.I. aMousetrap,aa New York Times, 08/26/1961.
aWe took offensea: Interview with Vern Pike, Washington, D.C., November 17, 2008.
At 5:30 on Sunday: Interview with Lucian Heichler, a.s.sociation for Diplomatic Studies and Training Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, initial interview date February 2, 2000, http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004hei01); interview with James. E. Hoofnagle, a.s.sociation for Diplomatic Studies and Training Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, initial interview date March 3, 1989, http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004hoo01).
aI returned from Germanya: Report by Vice President Johnson, Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library, Vice Presidential Security Files, VP Travel, Berlin, Secret. The vice president also reported on his trip to Kennedy on August 21. The memo for the record of this meeting is in JFKL, NSF, Germany, Berlin.
On August 22, Ulbricht: Fursenko and Naftali, Khrushchevas Cold War, 385, quoting MFA, Gromyko and Malinovsky to the Central Committee, July 7, 1962 (recounting 1961 events), 0742, 7/28/54, 10a"13.
Swelling with confidence: Fursenko and Naftali, Khrushchevas Cold War, 385, citing Ulbricht letter to Khrushchev, October 31, 1961, AVP-RF.
Chancellor Adenauer finally surfaced: aKanzler Besuch: Keen w.i.l.l.ydrin,a Der Spiegel, 08/30/1961.
Many West Berliners: aFoes Taunt Adenauer in Berlin,a Washington Post, 08/23/1961; Die Zeit, 03/25/1961.
Adenauer visited the king: Schwarz, Konrad Adenauer. Vol. 2: The Statesman, 1952a"1967, 542; Cable, Adenauer an Springer, 16.08.1961; Adenauer, Teegesprche 1959a"1961, 546.
West Berlin police officer: Doris Liebermann, aaDie Gewalt der anderen Seite hat mich sehr getroffena: Gesprch mit Hans-Joachim Lazai,a in Deutschland Archiv No. 39/2006, 596a"607; aWall Victima Ida Siekmann: http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/index.php/de/Start/Detail/id/593816/page/1.
It was nearly eight: aWall Victima Bernd Lnser: http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/index.php/de/Start/Detail/id/593816/page/5.
aJrg Hildebrandt (Hg.), Regine Hildebrandt. Erinnern tut gut. Ein Familienalb.u.m, Berlin 2008, S. 56.
Eberhard Bolle was so focused: Interview with Eberhard Bolle, Berlin, October 10, 2008.
16. A HEROaS HOMECOMING aWe have lost Czechoslovakiaa: Teleconference, Clay and Department of the Army, April 10, 1948; communication recounted in Lucius D. Clay, Decision in Germany, reprint, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1970, 359a"362 (361).
aWhy would anyone writea: JFKL, Elie Abel OH, March 18, 1970, 3a"4; Elie Abel, aKennedy After 8 Months Is Tempered by Adversity,a Detroit News, September 23, 1961.
Berliners still spoke: Andrei Cherny, The Candy Bombers: The Untold Story of the Berlin Airlift and Americaas Finest Hour. New York: G. P. Putnamas Sons, 2008, 253.
Clayas determination to keep: Teleconference, Clay and Department of the Army, April 10, 1948; communication recounted in Lucius D. Clay, Decision in Germany. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1970, 361.
Clayas appointment: Smyser, Kennedy and the Berlin Wall, 115.
Kennedy had even rewritten: Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay: An American Life. New York: Henry Holt, 1990, 651a"652.
Whatever his dilemmas: aPublic Backs Kennedy Despite aBad Breaks,aa Washington Post, 08/25/1961.
Unlike Kennedy, Clay spoke: RIAS, General Clayas statement upon arrival in West Berlin, September 19, 1961: http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/index.php/de/Media/VideoPopup/field/audio_video/id/40514/oldAction/Index/oldId/955454/oldModule/Start/page/0.
The Christian Democrats: Prittie, Konrad Adenauer, 288a"291.
Clayas limited job description: Smith, Lucius D. Clay, 654.
The State Departmentas Martin Hillenbrand: Gelb, The Berlin Wall, 246.
Clay had launched: http://www.uniprotokolle.de/Lexikon/Berliner_Luftbrcke.html.
The East German newspaper: Washington Post, 09/18/1961; Taylor, The Berlin Wall: A World Divided, 263a"265.
At age twenty-one: Interview with Albrecht Peter Roos, Berlin, October 13, 2008.
As a result of August 13: Honor M. Catudal, Steinstcken: A Study in Cold War Politics. New York: Vantage Press, 1971, 15.
East German authorities threatened: New York Times, 09/22/1961; 09/23/1961; Washington Post, 09/22/1961; 09/23/1961; Catudal, Kennedy and the Berlin Wall Crisis, 139a"135; Smyser, Kennedy and the Berlin Wall, 131.
Without divulging his plans: Catudal, Steinstcken, 15a"16, 106.
General Clay spent: Smith, Defense of Berlin, 309a"310; Interview with Vern Pike, Washington, D.C., November 17, 2008.
By coincidence, European Commander: Catudal, Kennedy and the Berlin Wall Crisis, 133a"134.
A few days later, U.S. troops: Interview with Vern Pike, Washington, D.C., November 17, 2008.
