Astronomy: The Science of the Heavenly Bodies Part 14

CHAPTER XXIX

ECLIPSES OF THE MOON

Of all the weird happenings of the nighttime sky, eclipses of the moon are the most impressive. Rarely is there a year without one. What is the cause? Simply the earth getting in between sun and moon, and thereby shutting off the sunlight which at all other times enables us to see the moon. As the earth is a dark body it must cast a black shadow on the side away from the sun, and it is the moon's pa.s.sing into this shadow or some part of it that causes a lunar eclipse.

Sun and earth being so different in size, the earth's shadow must stretch away from it into s.p.a.ce, growing smaller and smaller, until at length it comes to an end--the apex of a cone 857,000 miles long. If we cut off this shadow at the moon's distance from the earth, we find it about 6,000 miles in diameter at that point; and this accounts for the fact that the curvature on the side of the moon, when the eclipse is coming on and where it is dropping into the shadow, is always much less rapid than the curvature of the moon's own disk is.

When an eclipse is approaching, the eastern limb will be duskily darkened for half an hour or more, because the moon must first pa.s.s through the outer penumbra, or half-shadow which everywhere surrounds the true shadow itself. If the moon hits only the upper or lower part of the shadow, the eclipse will be only partial, and during the progress of the eclipse it will seem as if the uneclipsed part had swung or twisted around in the sky, from the western limb of the moon to the eastern. But when the moon pa.s.ses through the middle regions of the shadow, the eclipse is always total, and direct sunlight is wholly cut off from every part of the moon's face, for a greater or less length of time, according to the part of the shadow through which it pa.s.ses. When pa.s.sing centrally through the shadow, the total eclipse will last about two hours, as the moon's diameter is about one-third of the breadth of the shadow; and the eclipse will be partial about two hours longer, an hour at beginning and an hour at the end, because the moon moves over her own breadth in about an hour.

While the moon is wholly immersed in the shadow, her body is nevertheless visible, as a dull tarnished copper disk; and this is caused by the reddish sunlight which grazes the earth all around and is refracted or bent by our atmosphere into the shadow itself. If this belt or ring of terrestrial atmosphere happens to be everywhere filled with dense clouds, as was the case in 1886, even the familiar copper moon of a total lunar eclipse disappears completely in the black sky.

Quite different from a solar eclipse, all the phases of a lunar eclipse are visible at the same time on the earth wherever the moon is above the horizon. Eclipses of the moon are therefore seen with great frequency at any given place as compared with solar eclipses, which are restricted to relatively narrow areas of the earth's surface. Nor are lunar eclipses of very much significance to the astronomer, mainly because of the slowness and indefiniteness of the phenomena. It is a good time to observe occultations of faint stars at the moon's edge or limb, and several such programs have been carried out by cooperation of observatories in widely separate regions of the world: the object being improvement in our knowledge of the distance of the moon, and in the accuracy of the mathematical tables of her motion. Search by photography for a possible satellite, or moon of the moon, has been made on several occasions, though without success.

A lunar eclipse was first observed and photographed from an aeroplane, May 2, 1920. At the request of the writer, two aviators of the United States navy ascended to a height of 15,000 feet above Rockaway, and secured many advantages accruing from great elevation in viewing a celestial phenomenon of this character.

CHAPTER x.x.x

TOTAL ECLIPSES OF THE SUN

Primitive peoples indulged in every variety of explanation of mysterious happenings in the sky. To the Chinese and all through India, a total eclipse of the sun is caused by "a certain dragon with very black claws," who, except for their frightening him away by every conceivable sort of hideous noise, would most certainly "eat up the sun." The eclipse always goes off, the sun has never been eaten yet. Can you convince a Chinaman that Rahu, the Dragon, wouldn't have eaten up the sun, if his unearthly din hadn't frightened him away?

In j.a.pan the eclipse drops poison from the sky into wells, so the j.a.panese cover them up. Fontenelle relates that in the middle of the seventeenth century a mult.i.tude of people shut themselves up in cellars in Paris during a total eclipse.

In the Shu-king, an ancient Chinese work, occurs the earliest record of a total eclipse of the sun, in the year B. C. 2158. The Nineveh eclipse of B. C. 763 is perhaps the first of the ancient eclipses of which we possess a really clear description on the a.s.syrian eponym tablets in the British Museum. It is the eclipse possibly referred to in the Book of Amos, viii.

But of all the ancient eclipses none perhaps exceeds in interest the famous eclipse of Thales, B. C. 585, May 28. It is the first eclipse to have been predicted, probably by means of the saros, or 18-year period of eclipses, which is useful as an approximate method even at the present day. But the accident of a war between the Lydians and the Medes has added greatly to the historic interest, because the combatants were so terrified by the sudden turning of day into night that they at once concluded a peace cemented by two marriages.

Very many of the ancient eclipses have been of great use to the historian in verifying dates, and mathematical astronomers have employed them in correcting the lunar tables, or intricate mathematical data by which the motion of the moon is predicted.

Coming down to the middle of the sixth century, we find the first eclipse recorded in England, in the "Saxon Chronicle," A. D. 538. During the epoch of the Arabian Nights several eclipses were witnessed at Bagdad, A. D. 829 to 928, and many a century later by Ibu-Jounis, court astronomer of Hakem, the Caliph of Egypt. Nothing is more interesting than to search the quaint records of these ancient eclipses. One occurring in 1560, when Tycho Brahe was but fourteen, had much to do with turning his permanent interest toward mathematics and astronomy.

The eclipse of 1612 was the first "seen through a tube," the telescope having been invented only a few years before. "Paradise Lost" was completed about 1665, and the censorship was still in existence; and it is matter of record that the oft-quoted pa.s.sage,

"As when the Sun, new risen, Looks through the horizontal misty air, Shorn of his beams; or from behind the Moon, In dim eclipse, disastrous twilight sheds On half the nations, and with fear of change Perplexes monarchs."

_P. L._, i. 594

was strongly urged as sufficient reason for suppressing the entire epic.

London was favored with the outflashing corona, May 3, 1715, and a pamphlet was issued in prediction, ent.i.tled "The Black Day, or a Prospect of Doomsday."

The first American eclipse expedition was on occasion of the totality of Oct. 27, 1780, sent out by Harvard College and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences under Professor Samuel Williams to Pen.o.bscot. There was a fine total eclipse from Albany to Boston on June 16, 1806, and many important observations of it were made in this country.

But it was not till the European eclipse of 1842 that research got fully under way, because the germ of the new astronomy, particularly as applied to the sun, had begun its development; and the significance of the corona was obvious, if it could be proved a true appendage of the sun. Photography had not long been discovered, and the corona of 1851 was the first to be automatically registered on a daguerreotype. In 1860 it was proved that prominences and corona both belong to the sun and not to the moon.

The great Indian eclipse of 1868 brought the important discovery that the prominences can be observed at any time without an eclipse by means of the spectroscope. In 1869 bright lines were found in the spectrum of the corona, one line in the green indicating the presence of an element not then known on the earth and hence called coronium. In 1870 the reversing layer or stratum of the sun was discovered. In 1878 a vast ecliptic extension of the streams of the corona many millions of miles both east and west of the sun was first seen. This is now known to be the type of corona characteristic of minimum spots on the sun. In 1882 the spectrum of the corona was first photographed and in 1889 excellent detail photographs of the corona were taken. In 1893 it was shown that the corona quite certainly rotates bodily with the sun. In 1896 actual spectrum photographs of the reversing layer established its existence beyond doubt--"flash spectrum" it is often called. In 1898 the long ecliptic streamers of the corona were successfully photographed for the first time. In 1900 the depth of the reversing layer was found to average 500 miles, the heat of the corona was first measured by the bolometer, and many observations showed that the coronal streamers, in part at least, partake of the nature of electric discharges.

All subsequent total eclipses have been carefully observed, in whatever part of the world they may happen, and each has added new results of significance to our theories of the corona and its relation to the radiant energy of the sun. In very recent eclipses the cinematograph has been brought into action as an efficient adjunct of observation; in 1914 the first successful "movie" of the eclipse was secured in Sweden, and in 1918 Frost of the Yerkes Observatory first applied the cinematograph to registry of the "flash spectrum," and Stebbins tested out his photo-electric cell on the corona, making the brightness 0.5 that of the full moon. In 1914 (Russia) and again in 1919 (on the Atlantic) the obvious advantages of the aeroplane in ecliptic observation and photography were sought by the writer, though unsuccessfully. The photographic tests, however, conducted in preparation for these expeditions proved the entire practicability of securing eclipse results of much value, independently of clouds below.

Eclipses in the near future will be total in Australia about six minutes on September 21, 1922; in California and Mexico about four minutes on September 10, 1923; and along a line from Toronto to Nantucket about two minutes on the morning of January 24, 1925.

To all spectators, savage or civilized, scientist or layman, a total eclipse is wonderful and impressive. Langley said: "The spectacle is one of which, though the man of science may prosaically state the facts, perhaps only the poet could render the impression." Very gradually the moon steals its way across the face of the sun, the lessened light is hardly noticed. If one is near a tree through whose foliage the sunlight filters, an extraordinary sight is seen; the ground all about is covered with luminous crescents, instead of the overlapping disks which were there before the eclipse came on; in both cases they are images of the disk of the sun at the time, and the narrowing crescents will be watched with interest as totality approaches. Then the shadow bands may be seen flitting across the landscape, like "visible wind." They are probably related to our atmosphere and the very slender crescent from which true sunlight still comes.

Then for a few seconds the moon's actual shadow may be caught in its approach, very suddenly the darkness steals over the landscape and--totality is on. How lucky if there are no clouds! Every eye is riveted on "the incomparable corona, a silvery, soft, unearthly light, with radiant streamers, stretching at times millions of uncomprehended miles into s.p.a.ce, while the rosy flaming protuberances skirt the black rim of the moon in ethereal splendor."

Then it is now or never with observer and photographer. Months of diligent preparations at home followed by weeks of tedious journey abroad, with days of strenuous preparation and rehearsals at the station--all go for naught unless the whole is tuned up to perfect operation the instant totality begins. It may last but a minute, or even less; in 1937, however, total eclipse will last 7 minutes 20 seconds, the longest ever observed, and within half a minute of the longest possible. All is over as suddenly as it came on. The first thing is to complete records, develop plates, and see if everything worked perfectly.

There is great utility back of all eclipse research, on account of its wide bearing on meteorology and terrestrial physics, and possibly the direct use of solar energy for industrial purposes. With this purpose in view the astronomer devotes himself unsparingly to the acquisition of every possible fact about the sun and his corona.

Considering the earth as a whole, the number of total eclipses will average nearly seventy to the century. But at any given place, one may count himself very fortunate if he sees a single total eclipse, although he may see several partial ones without going from home. Then, too, there are annular or ring eclipses, averaging seven in eight years. But had one been born in Boston or New York in the latter part of the eighteenth century, he might have lived through the entire nineteenth century and a long way into the twentieth without seeing more than one total eclipse of the sun. In London in 1715 no total eclipse had been visible for six centuries. However, taking general averages, and recalling the comparatively narrow belt of total eclipse, every part of the earth is likely to come within range of the moon's shadow once in about three and a half centuries.

The longest total eclipses always occur near the equator; this is because an observer on the equator is carried eastward by the earth's rotation at a velocity of about 1,000 miles per hour, so that he remains longer in the moon's shadow which is pa.s.sing over him in the same direction with a velocity about twice as great.

The general circ.u.mstances of total eclipses are readily foretold by means of the ancient Chaldean period of eclipses known as the saros. It is 18 years and 10 or 11 days in length (according to the number of leap years intervening). In one complete saros, forty-one solar eclipses will generally happen, but only about one-fourth of them will be total. The saros is a period at the end of which the centers of sun and moon return very nearly to their relative positions at the beginning of the cycle.

So, in general, the eclipse of any year will be a repet.i.tion of one which took place 18 years before, and another very similar in circ.u.mstances will happen 18 years in the future. Three periods of the saros, or 54 years and 1 month, will usually bring about a return of any given eclipse to any particular part of the earth, so far as longitude is concerned, though the returning track will lie about 600 miles to the north or south of the one 54 years earlier.

Paths of total eclipses frequently intersect, if large areas like an entire country are considered; Spain, for instance, where total eclipses have occurred in 1842, 1860, 1870, 1900 and 1905. Besides crossing Spain, the tracks of totality on May 28, 1900, and August 30, 1905, were unique in intersecting exactly over a large city--Tripoli in Barbary, on both of which occasions the writer's expeditions to that city were rewarded with perfect observing conditions in that now Italian province on the edge of the great desert.

Kepler was the first astronomer to calculate eclipses with some approach to scientific form, as exemplified in his Rudolphine Tables. His method was of course geometrical. But La Grange, who applied the methods of more refined a.n.a.lysis to the problem, was the first to develop a method by which an eclipse and all its circ.u.mstances could be accurately predicted for any part of the earth. To many minds, the prediction of an eclipse affords the best ill.u.s.tration of the superior knowledge of the astronomer: it seems little short of the marvelous. But recalling that the motion of the moon follows the law of gravitation, and that its position in the sky is predictable for years in advance with a high degree of precision, it will readily be seen how the arrival of the moon's shadow, and hence the total eclipses of the sun, can be foretold for any place over which the shadow pa.s.ses.

All these data derived by the mathematician are known as the elements of the eclipse, and they are prepared many years in advance and published in the nautical almanacs and astronomical ephemerides issued by the leading nations. Buchanan's "Treatise on Eclipses" will supply all the technical information regarding the prediction of eclipses that anyone desirous of inquiring into this phase of the problem may desire.

So important are total eclipses in the scheme of modern solar research, and so necessary are clear skies in order that expeditions may be favored with success, that every effort is now made to ascertain the weather chances at particular stations along the line of eclipse many years in advance. This method of securing preliminary cloud observations for a series of years has proved especially useful for the eclipses of 1893, 1896, 1900, and 1918; and had it been employed in Russia for totality of 1914, many well-equipped expeditions might have been spared disaster. The California and Mexico totality of 1923 does not require this forethought, as the regions visited are quite likely to be free from cloud; but observations are now in process of acc.u.mulation for the total eclipse of 1925. The out-look for clear skies on that occasion, the total eclipse nearest New York for more than a century, is not very promising. The path of totality pa.s.ses over Marquette, Michigan, Rochester and Poughkeepsie, New York, Newport, Rhode Island, and Nantucket about nine in the morning.

Everyone who saw it will remember the last total eclipse in this part of the world--on June 8, 1918, visible from Oregon to Florida. Many will recall the last total eclipse that was visible before that in the eastern part of the United States, on May 28, 1900, visible in a narrow path from New Orleans to Norfolk. One's father or grandfather will perhaps remember the total eclipse of July 29, 1878, which pa.s.sed over the United States from Pike's Peak to Texas (it was the writer's maiden eclipse), and another on August 7, 1869, which pa.s.sed southeasterly over Iowa and Kentucky. On all these occasions the paths of total eclipse were dotted with numerous observing parties, many of them equipped with elaborate apparatus for studying and photographing the solar corona and prominences, together with a mult.i.tude of other phenomena which are seen only when total eclipses take place.

Looking forward rather than backward, a striking series, or family, of eclipses happens in the future: it is the series of May, 1901 and 1919, recurring again on June 8, 1937 (over the Pacific Ocean), June 20, 1955 (through India, Siam, and Luzon), and June 30, 1973 (visible in Sahara, Abyssinia, and Somali). Already in 1919 this totality was 6 minutes 50 seconds in duration; in 1937, as already mentioned, it will be 7 minutes 20 seconds, and at the subsequent returns even longer yet, approaching the estimated maximum of 7 minutes 58 seconds which has never been observed. This remarkable series of total eclipses is longer in duration than any others during a thousand years. Its next subsequent return is in 1991, occurring with the eclipsed sun practically at noon in the zenith of Mount Popocatepetl in Mexico.

Whatever may be the progress of solar research during the intervening years, it is impossible to imagine the alert astronomer of that remote day without incentive for further investigation of the sun's corona, in which are concealed no doubt many secrets of the sun's evolution from nebula to star.

CHAPTER x.x.xI

THE SOLAR CORONA

"And what is the sun's corona?" mildly asked a college professor of a student who might better have answered "Not prepared."

"I did know, Professor, but I have forgotten," was his reply.

"What an incalculable loss to science," returned the professor with a twinkle. "The only man who ever knew what the sun's corona is, and he has forgotten!"

Only in part has the mystery of the corona been cleared by the research of the present day. Our knowledge proceeds but slowly, because the corona has never been seen except during total eclipses of the sun; and astronomers, as a matter of fact, have never had a fair chance at it.