A Manual of Elementary Geology Part 63

_Dikes of Somma._--The dikes seen in the great escarpment which Somma presents towards the modern cone of Vesuvius are very numerous. They are for the most part vertical, and traverse at right angles the beds of lava, scoriae, volcanic breccia, and sand, of which the ancient cone is composed. They project in relief several inches, or sometimes feet, from the face of the cliff, being extremely compact, and less destructible than the intersected tuffs and porous lavas. In vertical extent they vary from a few yards to 500 feet, and in breadth from 1 to 12 feet.

Many of them cut all the inclined beds in the escarpment of Somma from top to bottom, others stop short before they ascend above half way, and a few terminate at both ends, either in a point or abruptly. In mineral composition they scarcely differ from the lavas of Somma, the rock consisting of a base of leucite and augite, through which large crystals of augite and some of leucite are scattered.[404-A] Examples are not rare of one dike cutting through another, and in one instance a shift or fault is seen at the point of intersection.

In some cases, however, the rents seem to have been filled laterally, when the walls of the crater had been broken by star-shaped cracks, as seen in the accompanying woodcut (fig. 467.). But the shape of these rents is an exception to the general rule; for nothing is more remarkable than the usual parallelism of the opposite sides of the dikes, which correspond almost as regularly as the two opposite faces of a wall of masonry. This character appears at first the more inexplicable, when we consider how jagged and uneven are the rents caused by earthquakes in ma.s.ses of heterogeneous composition, like those composing the cone of Somma. In explanation of this phenomenon, M. Necker refers us to Sir W. Hamilton's account of an eruption of Vesuvius in the year 1779, who records the following facts:--"The lavas, when they either boiled over the crater, or broke out from the conical parts of the volcano, constantly formed channels as regular as if they had been cut by art down the steep part of the mountain; and, whilst in a state of perfect fusion, continued their course in those channels, which were sometimes full to the brim, and at other times more or less so, according to the quant.i.ty of matter in motion.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 467. Dikes or veins at the Punta del Nasone on Somma. (Necker.[405-A])]

"These channels, upon examination after an eruption, I have found to be in general from two to five or six feet wide, and seven or eight feet deep.

They were often hid from the sight by a quant.i.ty of scoriae that had formed a crust over them; and the lava, having been conveyed in a covered way for some yards, came out fresh again into an open channel. After an eruption, I have walked in some of those subterraneous or covered galleries, which were exceedingly curious, the sides, top, and bottom _being worn perfectly smooth and even_ in most parts, by the violence of the currents of the red-hot lavas which they had conveyed for many weeks successively."[405-B]

Now, the walls of a vertical fissure, through which lava has ascended in its way to a volcanic vent, must have been exposed to the same erosion as the sides of the channels before adverted to. The prolonged and uniform friction of the heavy fluid, as it is forced and made to flow upwards, cannot fail to wear and smooth down the surfaces on which it rubs, and the intense heat must melt all such ma.s.ses as project and obstruct the pa.s.sage of the incandescent fluid.

The texture of the Vesuvian dikes is different at the edges and in the middle. Towards the centre, observes M. Necker, the rock is larger grained, the component elements being in a far more crystalline state; while at the edge the lava is sometimes vitreous, and always finer grained. A thin parting band, approaching in its character to pitchstone, occasionally intervenes, on the contact of the vertical dike and intersected beds. M. Necker mentions one of these at the place called Primo Monte, in the Atrio del Cavallo; and when on Somma, in 1828, I saw three or four others in different parts of the great escarpment. These phenomena are in perfect harmony with the results of the experiments of Sir James Hall and Mr. Gregory Watt, which have shown that a gla.s.sy texture is the effect of sudden cooling, and that, on the contrary, a crystalline grain is produced where fused minerals are allowed to consolidate slowly and tranquilly under high pressure.

It is evident that the central portion of the lava in a fissure would, during consolidation, part with its heat more slowly than the sides, although the contrast of circ.u.mstances would not be so great as when we compare the lava at the bottom and at the surface of a current flowing in the open air. In this case the uppermost part, where it has been in contact with the atmosphere, and where refrigeration has been most rapid, is always found to consist of scoriform, vitreous, and porous lava; while at a greater depth the ma.s.s a.s.sumes a more lithoidal structure, and then becomes more and more stony as we descend, until at length we are able to recognize with a magnifying gla.s.s the simple minerals of which the rock is composed.

On penetrating still deeper, we can detect the const.i.tuent parts by the naked eye, and in the Vesuvian currents distinct crystals of augite and leucite become apparent.

The same phenomenon, observes M. Necker, may readily be exhibited on a smaller scale, if we detach a piece of liquid lava from a moving current.

The fragment cools instantly, and we find the surface covered with a vitreous coat; while the interior, although extremely fine-grained, has a more stony appearance.

It must, however, be observed, that although the lateral portions of the dikes are finer grained than the central, yet the vitreous parting layer before alluded to is rare in Vesuvius. This may, perhaps, be accounted for, as the above-mentioned author suggests, by the great heat which the walls of a fissure may acquire before the fluid ma.s.s begins to consolidate, in which case the lava, even at the sides, would cool very slowly. Some fissures, also, may be filled from above, as frequently happens in the volcanos of the Sandwich Islands, according to the observations of Mr.

Dana; and in this case the refrigeration at the sides would be more rapid than when the melted matter flowed upwards from the volcanic foci, in an intensely heated state. Mr. Darwin informs me that in St. Helena almost every dike has a vitreous selvage.

The rock composing the dikes both in the modern and ancient part of Vesuvius is far more compact than that of ordinary lava, for the pressure of a column of melted matter in a fissure greatly exceeds that in an ordinary stream of lava; and pressure checks the expansion of those gases which give rise to vesicles in lava.

There is a tendency in almost all the Vesuvian dikes to divide into horizontal prisms, a phenomenon in accordance with the formation of vertical columns in horizontal beds of lava; for in both cases the divisions which give rise to the prismatic structure are at right angles to the cooling surfaces.

_Newer Pliocene Period--Val di Noto._--I have already alluded (see p. 150.) to the igneous rocks which are a.s.sociated with a great marine formation of limestone, sand, and marl, in the southern part of Sicily, as at Vizzini and other places. In this formation, which was shown to belong to the Newer Pliocene period, large beds of oysters and corals repose upon lava, and are unaltered at the point of contact. In other places we find dikes of igneous rock intersecting the fossiliferous beds, and converting the clays into siliceous schist, the laminae being contorted and shivered into innumerable fragments at the junction, as near the town of Vizzini.

The volcanic formations of the Val di Noto usually consist of the most ordinary variety of basalt, with or without olivine. The rock is sometimes compact, often very vesicular. The vesicles are occasionally empty, both in dikes and currents, and are in some localities filled with calcareous spar, arragonite, and zeolites. The structure is, in some places, spheroidal; in others, though rarely, columnar. I found dikes of amygdaloid, wacke, and prismatic basalt, intersecting the limestone at the bottom of the hollow called Gozzo degli Martiri, below Melilli.

[2 Ill.u.s.trations: Fig. 468. Fig. 469. Ground-plan of dikes near Palagonia.

_a._ Lava.

_b._ Peperino, consisting of volcanic sand, mixed with fragments of lava and limestone.]

_Dikes._--Dikes of vesicular and amygdaloidal lava are also seen traversing marine tuff or peperino, west of Palagonia, some of the pores of the lava being empty, while others are filled with carbonate of lime. In such cases, we may suppose the peperino to have resulted from showers of volcanic sand and scoriae, together with fragments of limestone, thrown out by a submarine explosion, similar to that which gave rise to Graham Island in 1831. When the ma.s.s was, to a certain degree, consolidated, it may have been rent open, so that the lava ascended through fissures, the walls of which were perfectly even and parallel. After the melted matter that filled the rent in fig. 468. had cooled down, it must have been fractured and shifted horizontally by a lateral movement.

In the second figure (fig. 469.), the lava has more the appearance of a vein which forced its way through the peperino. It is highly probable that similar appearances would be seen, if we could examine the floor of the sea in that part of the Mediterranean where the waves have recently washed away the new volcanic island; for when a superinc.u.mbent ma.s.s of ejected fragments has been removed by denudation, we may expect to see sections of dikes traversing tuff, or, in other words, sections of the channels of communication by which the subterranean lavas reached the surface.

FOOTNOTES:

[399-A] Caldcleugh, Phil. Trans. 1836. p. 27., and Official Doc.u.ments of Nicaragua.

[399-B] See Principles, _Index_, "Skaptar Jokul."

[401-A] This view of the Isle of Cyclops is from an original drawing by my friend the late Captain Basil Hall, R. N.

[404-A] Consult the valuable memoir of M. L. A. Necker, Mem. de la Soc. de Phys. et d'Hist. Nat. de Geneve, tom. ii. part i. Nov. 1822.

[405-A] From a drawing of M. Necker, in Mem. above cited.

[405-B] Phil. Trans., vol. lxx., 1780.

CHAPTER x.x.xI.

ON THE DIFFERENT AGES OF THE VOLCANIC ROCKS--_continued_.

Volcanic rocks of the Older Pliocene period--Tuscany--Rome--Volcanic region of Olot in Catalonia--Cones and lava-currents--Ravines and ancient gravel-beds--Jets of air called Bufadors--Age of the Catalonian volcanos--Miocene period--Brown-coal of the Eifel and contemporaneous trachytic breccias--Age of the brown-coal--Peculiar characters of the volcanos of the upper and lower Eifel--Lake craters--Tra.s.s--Hungarian volcanos.

_Older Pliocene period--Tuscany._--In Tuscany, as at Radicofani, Viterbo, and Aquapendente, and in the Campagna di Roma, submarine volcanic tuffs are interstratified with the Older Pliocene strata of the Subapennine hills, in such a manner as to leave no doubt that they were the products of eruptions which occurred when the sh.e.l.ly marls and sands of the Subapennine hills were in the course of deposition.

_Catalonia._--Geologists are far from being able, as yet, to a.s.sign to each of the volcanic groups scattered over Europe a precise chronological place in the tertiary series; but I shall describe here, as probably referable to some part of the Pliocene period, a district of extinct volcanos near Olot, in the north of Spain, which is little known, and which I visited in the summer of 1830.

The whole extent of country occupied by volcanic products in Catalonia is not more than fifteen geographical miles from north to south, and about six from east to west. The vents of eruption range entirely within a narrow band running north and south; and the branches, which are represented as extending eastward in the map, are formed simply of two lava-streams--those of Castell Follit and Cellent.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 470. Volcanic district of Catalonia.]

Dr. Maclure, the American geologist, was the first who made known the existence of these volcanos[409-A]; and, according to his description, the volcanic region extended over twenty square leagues, from Amer to Ma.s.sanet.

I searched in vain in the environs of Ma.s.sanet, in the Pyrenees, for traces of a lava-current; and I can say, with confidence, that the adjoining map gives a correct view of the true area of the volcanic action.

_Geological structure of the district._--The eruptions have burst entirely through fossiliferous rocks, composed in great part of grey and greenish sandstone and conglomerate, with some thick beds of nummulitic limestone.

The conglomerate contains pebbles of quartz, limestone, and Lydian stone.

This system of rocks is very extensively spread throughout Catalonia; one of its members being a red sandstone, to which the celebrated salt-rock of Cardona, usually considered as of the cretaceous era, is subordinate.

Near Amer, in the Valley of the Ter, on the southern borders of the region delineated in the map, primary rocks are seen, consisting of gneiss, mica-schist, and clay-slate. They run in a line nearly parallel to the Pyrenees, and throw off the fossiliferous strata from their flanks, causing them to dip to the north and north-west. This dip, which is towards the Pyrenees, is connected with a distinct axis of elevation, and prevails through the whole area described in the map, the inclination of the beds being sometimes at an angle of between 40 and 50 degrees.

It is evident that the physical geography of the country has undergone no material change since the commencement of the era of the volcanic eruptions, except such as has resulted from the introduction of new hills of scoriae, and currents of lava upon the surface. If the lavas could be remelted and poured out again from their respective craters, they would descend the same valleys in which they are now seen, and re-occupy the s.p.a.ces which they at present fill. The only difference in the external configuration of the fresh lavas would consist in this, that they would nowhere be intersected by ravines, or exhibit marks of erosion by running water.

_Volcanic cones and lavas._--There are about fourteen distinct cones with craters in this part of Spain, besides several points whence lavas may have issued; all of them arranged along a narrow line running north and south, as will be seen in the map. The greatest number of perfect cones are in the immediate neighbourhood of Olot, some of which (Nos. 2, 3. and 5.) are represented in the annexed woodcut; and the level plain on which that town stands has clearly been produced by the flowing down of many lava-streams from those hills into the bottom of a valley, probably once of considerable depth, like those of the surrounding country.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 471. View of the Volcanos around Olot in Catalonia.]

In this drawing an attempt is made to represent, by the shading of the landscape, the different geological formations of which the country is composed.[410-A] The white line of mountains (No. 1.) in the distance is the Pyrenees, which are to the north of the spectator, and consist of hypogene and ancient fossiliferous rocks. In front of these are the fossiliferous formations (No. 4.) which are in shade. The hills 2, 3. 5.

are volcanic cones, and the rest of the ground on which the sunshine falls is strewed over with volcanic ashes and lava.

The Fluvia, which flows near the town of Olot, has cut to the depth of only 40 feet through the lavas of the plain before mentioned. The bed of the river is hard basalt; and at the bridge of Santa Madalena are seen two distinct lava-currents, one above the other, separated by a horizontal bed of scoriae 8 feet thick.

In one place, to the south of Olot, the even surface of the plain is broken by a mound of lava, called the "Bosque de Tosca," the upper part of which is scoriaceous, and covered with enormous heaps of fragments of basalt, more or less porous. Between the numerous hummocks thus formed are deep cavities, having the appearance of small craters. The whole precisely resembles some of the modern currents of Etna, or that of Come, near Clermont; the last of which, like the Bosque de Tosca, supports only a scanty vegetation.

Most of the Catalonian volcanos are as entire as those in the neighbourhood of Naples, or on the flanks of Etna. One of these, called Montsacopa (No.

3. fig. 471.), is of a very regular form, and has a circular depression or crater at the summit. It is chiefly made up of red scoriae, undistinguishable from that of the minor cones of Etna. The neighbouring hills of Olivet (No. 2.) and Garrinada (No. 5.) are of similar composition and shape. The largest crater of the whole district occurs farther to the east of Olot, and is called Santa Margarita. It is 455 feet deep, and about a mile in circ.u.mference. Like Astroni, near Naples, it is richly covered with wood, wherein game of various kinds abounds.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 472. Cross section.