A History of Indian Philosophy Part 30

which are without size and eternal. Matter may exist in two states, gross (such as things we see around us), and subtle (such as the karma matter which sullies the soul). All material things are ultimately produced by the combination of atoms. The smallest indivisible particle of matter is called an atom ([email protected]_).

The atoms are all eternal and they all have touch, taste, smell, and colour. The formation of different substances is due to the different geometrical, spherical or cubical modes of the combination of the atoms, to the diverse modes of their inner arrangement and to the existence of different degrees of inter-atomic s.p.a.ce (_ghanapratarabhedena_). Some combinations take place by simple mutual contact at two points (_yugmaprades'a_) whereas in others the atoms are only held together by the points of attractive force ([email protected]'a_) ([email protected]_, pp. 10-12).

Two atoms form a compound (_skandha_), when the one is viscous and the other dry or both are of different degrees of viscosity or dryness. It must be noted that while the Buddhists thought that there was no actual contact between the atoms the Jains regarded the contact as essential and as testified by experience. These compounds combine with other compounds and thus produce the gross things of the world. There are, however, liable to constant change ([email protected]_) by which they lose some of their old qualities ([email protected]_) and acquire new ones. There are four elements, earth, water, air, and fire, and the atoms of all these are alike in character. The perception of grossness however is not an error which is imposed upon the perception of the atoms by our mind (as the Buddhists think) nor is it due to the perception of atoms scattered spatially lengthwise and breadthwise (as the [email protected] supposes), but it is due to the accession of a similar property of grossness, blueness or hardness in the combined atoms, so that such knowledge is generated in us as is given in the perception of a gross, blue, or a hard thing. When a thing appears as blue, what happens is this, that the atoms there have all acquired the property of blueness and on the removal of the [email protected] and [email protected] veil, there arises in the soul the perception and knowledge of that blue thing. This sameness (_samana-rupata_) of the accession of a quality in an aggregate of atoms by virtue of which it appears as one object (e.g. a cow) is technically called _tiryaksamanya_. This samanya or generality is thus neither an imposition of the mind nor an abstract ent.i.ty

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(as maintained by the Naiyayikas) but represents only the accession of similar qualities by a similar development of qualities of atoms forming an aggregate. So long as this similarity of qualities continues we perceive the thing to be the same and to continue for some length of time. When we think of a thing to be permanent, we do so by referring to this sameness in the developing tendencies of an aggregate of atoms resulting in the relative permanence of similar qualities in them. According to the Jains things are not momentary and in spite of the loss of some old qualities and the accession of other ones, the thing as a whole may remain more or less the same for some time. This sameness of qualities in time is technically called _urdhvasamanya_ [Footnote ref 1]. If the atoms are looked at from the point of view of the change and accession of new qualities, they may be regarded as liable to destruction, but if they are looked at from the point of view of substance (_dravya_) they are eternal.

Dharma, Adharma, akas'a.

The conception of dharma and adharma in Jainism is absolutely different from what they mean in other systems of Indian philosophy. Dharma is devoid of taste, touch, smell, sound and colour; it is conterminous with the mundane universe (_lokakas'a_) and pervades every part of it. The term _astikaya_ is therefore applied to it. It is the principle of motion, the accompanying circ.u.mstance or cause which makes motion possible, like water to a moving fish. The water is a pa.s.sive condition or circ.u.mstance of the movement of a fish, i.e. it is indifferent or pa.s.sive (_udasina_) and not an active or solicitous (_preraka_) cause. The water cannot compel a fish at rest to move; but if the fish wants to move, water is then the necessary help to its motion. Dharma cannot make the soul or matter move; but if they are to move, they cannot do so without the presence of dharma. Hence at the extremity of the mundane world (_loka_) in the region of the liberated souls, there being no dharma, the liberated souls attain perfect rest. They cannot move there because there is not the necessary motion-element, dharma [Footnote ref 2].

Adharma is also regarded as a similar pervasive ent.i.ty which

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[Footnote 1: See [email protected]@da_, pp. 136-143; _Jainatarkavarttika_, p. 106.]

[Footnote 2: [email protected]@rtti_, 17-20.]

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helps jivas and pudgalas to keep themselves at rest. No substance could move if there were no dharma, or could remain at rest if there were no adharma. The necessity of admitting these two categories seems probably to have been felt by the Jains on account of their notion that the inner activity of the jiva or the atoms required for its exterior realization the help of some other extraneous ent.i.ty, without which this could not have been transformed into actual exterior motion. Moreover since the jivas were regarded as having activity inherent in them they would be found to be moving even at the time of liberation (moksa), which was undesirable; thus it was conceived that actual motion required for its fulfilment the help of an extraneous ent.i.ty which was absent in the region of the liberated souls.

The category of akas'a is that subtle ent.i.ty which pervades the mundane universe (_loka_) and the transcendent region of liberated souls (_aloka_) which allows the subsistence of all other substances such as dharma, adharma, jiva, pudgala. It is not a mere negation and absence of veil or obstruction, or mere emptiness, but a positive ent.i.ty which helps other things to interpenetrate it. On account of its pervasive character it is called _akas'astikaya_ [Footnote ref 1].

Kala and Samaya.

Time (_kala_) in reality consists of those innumerable particles which never mix with one another, but which help the happening of the modification or accession of new qualities and the change of qualities of the atoms. Kala does not bring about the changes of qualities, in things, but just as akas'a helps interpenetration and dharma motion, so also kala helps the action of the transformation of new qualities in things. Time perceived as moments, hours, days, etc., is called _samaya_. This is the appearance of the unchangeable kala in so many forms. Kala thus not only aids the modifications of other things, but also allows its own modifications as moments, hours, etc. It is thus a dravya (substance), and the moments, hours, etc., are its paryayas. The unit of samaya is the time required by an atom to traverse a unit of s.p.a.ce by a slow movement.

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[Footnote 1: [email protected]_, 19.]

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Jaina Cosmography.

According to the Jains, the world is eternal, without beginning or end. Loka is that place in which happiness and misery are experienced as results of virtue and vice. It is composed of three parts, _urdhva_ (where the G.o.ds reside), _madhya_ (this world of ours), and _adho_ (where the denizens of h.e.l.l reside). The mundane universe (_lokakas'a_) is pervaded with dharma which makes all movement possible. Beyond the lokakas'a there is no dharma and therefore no movement, but only s.p.a.ce (_akas'a_). Surrounding this lokakas'a are three layers of air. The perfected soul rising straight over the urdhvaloka goes to the top of this lokakas'a and (there being no dharma) remains motionless there.

Jaina Yoga.

Yoga according to Jainism is the cause of moksa (salvation).

This yoga consists of jnana (knowledge of reality as it is), s'raddha (faith in the teachings of the Jinas), and caritra (cessation from doing all that is evil). This caritra consists of [email protected]_ (not taking any life even by mistake or unmindfulness), [email protected]_ (speaking in such a way as is true, good and pleasing), _asteya_ (not taking anything which has not been given), brahmacaryya (abandoning l.u.s.t foi all kinds of objects, in mind, speech and body), and _aparigraha_ (abandoning attachment for all things) [Footnote ref 1].

These strict rules of conduct only apply to ascetics who are bent on attaining perfection. The standard proposed for the ordinary householders is fairly workable. Thus it is said by Hemacandra, that ordinary householders should earn money honestly, should follow the customs of good people, should marry a good girl from a good family, should follow the customs of the country and so forth. These are just what we should expect from any good and

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[Footnote 1: Certain external rules of conduct are also called caritra.

These are: _iryya_ (to go by the path already trodden by others and illuminated by the sun's rays, so that proper precaution may be taken while walking to prevent oneself from treading on insects, etc., which may be lying on the way), _bhasa_ (to speak well and pleasantly to all beings), _isana_ (to beg alms in the proper monastic manner), _danasamiti_ (to inspect carefully the seats avoiding all transgressions when taking or giving anything), _utsargasamiti_ (to take care that bodily refuse may not be thrown in such a way as to injure any being), _manogupti_ (to remove all false thoughts, to remain satisfied within oneself, and hold all people to be the same in mind), _vaggupti_ (absolute silence), and _kayagupti_ (absolute steadiness and fixity of the body). Five other kinds of caritra are counted in [email protected]_ 35.]

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honest householder of the present day. Great stress is laid upon the virtues of [email protected], [email protected], asteya and brahmacaryya, but the root of all these is [email protected] The virtues of [email protected], asteya and brahmacaryya are made to follow directly as secondary corrollaries of [email protected] [email protected] may thus be generalized as the fundamental ethical virtue of Jainism; judgment on all actions may be pa.s.sed in accordance with the standard of [email protected]; [email protected], asteya and brahmacaryya are regarded as virtues as their transgression leads to [email protected] (injury to beings). A milder form of the practice of these virtues is expected from ordinary householders and this is called anubrata (small vows). But those who are struggling for the attainment of emanc.i.p.ation must practise these virtues according to the highest and strictest standard, and this is called mahabrata (great vows). Thus for example brahmacaryya for a householder according to the anubrata standard would be mere cessation from adultery, whereas according to mahabrata it would be absolute abstention from s.e.x-thoughts, s.e.x-words and s.e.x-acts.

[email protected] according to a householder, according to anubrata, would require abstinence from killing any animals, but according to mahavrata it would entail all the rigour and carefulness to prevent oneself from being the cause of any kind of injury to any living being in any way.

Many other minor duties are imposed upon householders, all of which are based upon the cardinal virtue of [email protected] These are (1) _digvirati_ (to carry out activities within a restricted area and thereby desist from injuring living beings in different places), (2) _bhogopabhogamana_ (to desist from drinking liquors, taking flesh, b.u.t.ter, honey, figs, certain other kinds of plants, fruits, and vegetables, to observe certain other kinds of restrictions regarding time and place of taking meals), (3) [email protected]@da_ consisting of (a) _apadhyana_ (cessation from inflicting any bodily injuries, killing of one's enemies, etc.), (b) _papopades'a_ (desisting from advising people to take to agriculture which leads to the killing of so many insects), (c) [email protected]_ (desisting from giving implements of agriculture to people which will lead to the injury of insects), (d) [email protected]_ (to desist from attending musical parties, theatres, or reading s.e.x-literature, gambling, etc.), (4) [email protected]_ consisting of (a) _samayikabrata_ (to try to treat all beings equally), (b) des'avakas'ikabrata (gradually to practise the _digviratibrata_ more and more extensively), (c) [email protected]_

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(certain other kinds of restriction), (d) [email protected] (to make gifts to guests). All transgressions of these virtues, called _aticara_, should be carefully avoided.

All perception, wisdom, and morals belong to the soul, and to know the soul as possessing these is the right knowledge of the soul. All sorrows proceeding out of want of self-knowledge can be removed only by true self-knowledge. The soul in itself is pure intelligence, and it becomes endowed with the body only on account of its karma. When by meditation, all the karmas are burnt (_dhyanagnidagdhakarma_) the self becomes purified. The soul is itself the [email protected] (the cycle of rebirths) when it is overpowered by the four [email protected] (pa.s.sions) and the senses. The four [email protected] are _krodha_ (anger), _mana_ (vanity and pride), _maya_ (insincerity and the tendency to dupe others), and _lobha_ (greed).

These [email protected] cannot be removed except by a control of the senses; and self-control alone leads to the purity of the mind ([email protected]'uddhi_). Without the control of the mind no one can proceed in the path of yoga. All our acts become controlled when the mind is controlled, so those who seek emanc.i.p.ation should make every effort to control the mind. No kind of asceticism (_tapas_) can be of any good until the mind is purified. All attachment and antipathy ([email protected]_) can be removed only by the purification of the mind. It is by attachment and antipathy that man loses his independence. It is thus necessary for the yogin (sage) that he should be free from them and become independent in the real sense of the term When a man learns to look upon all beings with equality (_samatva_) he can effect such a conquest over raga and [email protected] as one could never do even by the strictest asceticism through millions of years. In order to effect this samatva towards all, we should take to the following kinds of meditation (_bhavana_):

We should think of the transitoriness (_anityata_) of all things, that what a thing was in the morning, it is not at mid-day, what it was at mid-day it is not at night; for all things are transitory and changing. Our body, all our objects of pleasure, wealth and youth all are fleeting like dreams, or cotton particles in a whirlwind.

All, even the G.o.ds, are subject to death. All our relatives will by their works fall a prey to death. This world is thus full of misery and there is nothing which can support us in it. Thus in

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whatever way we look for anything, on which we can depend, we find that it fails us. This is called [email protected] (the meditation of helplessness).

Some are born in this world, some suffer, some reap the fruits of the karma done in another life. We are all different from one another by our surroundings, karma, by our separate bodies and by all other gifts which each of us severally enjoy. To meditate on these aspects is called ekatvabhavana and anyatvabhavana.

To think that the body is made up of defiled things, the flesh, blood, and bones, and is therefore impure is called as'ucibhavana (meditation of the impurity of the body).

To think that if the mind is purified by the thoughts of universal friendship and compa.s.sion and the pa.s.sions are removed, then only will good {_s'ubha_) accrue to me, but if on the contrary I commit sinful deeds and transgress the virtues, then all evil will befall me, is called asravabhavana (meditation of the befalling of evil). By the control of the asrava (inrush of karma) comes the [email protected] (cessation of the influx of karma) and the destruction of the karmas already acc.u.mulated leads to nirjara (decay and destruction of karma matter).

Again one should think that the practice of the ten dharmas (virtues) of self control ([email protected]_), truthfulness ([email protected]_), purity (_s'auca_), chast.i.ty (_brahma_), absolute want of greed (_akincanata_), asceticism (_tapas_), forbearance, patience (_ks'anti_), mildness (_mardava_), sincerity ([email protected]_), and freedom or emanc.i.p.ation from all sins (_mukti_} can alone help us in the achievement of the highest goal. These are the only supports to which we can look. It is these which uphold the world-order. This is called dharmasvakhyatatabhavana.

Again one should think of the Jaina cosmology and also of the nature of the influence of karma in producing all the diverse conditions of men. These two are called _lokabhavana_ and _bodhibhavana_.

When by the continual practice of the above thoughts man becomes unattached to all things and adopts equality to all beings, and becomes disinclined to all worldly enjoyments, then with a mind full of peace he gets rid of all pa.s.sions, and then he should take to the performance of dhyana or meditation by deep concentration.

The samatva or perfect equality of the mind and dhyana are interdependent, so that without dhyana there is no samatva

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and without samatva there is no dhyana. In order to make the mind steady by dhyana one should think of _maitri_ (universal friendship), _pramoda_ (the habit of emphasizing the good sides of men), [email protected]_ (universal compa.s.sion) and _madhyastha_ (indifference to the wickedness of people, i.e. the habit of not taking any note of sinners). The Jaina dhyana consists in concentrating the mind on the syllables of the Jaina prayer phrases. The dhyana however as we have seen is only practised as an aid to making the mind steady and perfectly equal and undisturbed towards all things. Emanc.i.p.ation comes only as the result of the final extinction of the karma materials. Jaina yoga is thus a complete course of moral discipline which leads to the purification of the mind and is hence different from the traditional Hindu yoga of Patanjali or even of the Buddhists [Footnote ref 1].

Jaina Atheism [Footnote ref 2].

The Naiyayikas a.s.sert that as the world is of the nature of an effect, it must have been created by an intelligent agent and this agent is is'vara (G.o.d). To this the Jain replies, "What does the Naiyayika mean when he says that the world is of the nature of an effect"? Does he mean by "effect," (1) that which is made up of parts (_savayava_), or, (2) the coinherence of the causes of a non-existent thing, or, (3) that which is regarded by anyone as having been made, or, (4) that which is liable to change (_vikaritvam_).

Again, what is meant by being "made up of parts"? If it means existence in parts, then the cla.s.s-concepts (_samanya_) existing in the parts should also be regarded as effects, and hence destructible, but these the Naiyayikas regard as being partless and eternal. If it means "that which has parts," then even "s.p.a.ce"

(_akas'a_) has to be regarded as "effect," but the Naiyayika regards it as eternal.