A Briefe Introduction to Geography Part 2

5 _Fluvius_ a Riuer, which from the pleasantnesse is also called _Amnis_; from the smalnesse of it _Rivus_.

Now concerning these parts diuers questions are moued; whether there bee more Sea or Land? whether the sea would naturally ouerflow the land, as it did in the first creation, were it not withheld within his bankes by diuine power? whether the deepenes of the Sea, doth exceede the height of the mountaines? whether mountaines were before the flood? what is the hight of the highest hilles? whether Iland, came since the flood? what is the cause of the Ebbing and flowing of the Sea? what is the original of springs and riuers? what manner of motion the running of the riuers is? with such like, whereof some belong not so properly to this science of Geography as to others. Wee speake onely a word or two of the last, & so proceed. The question is whether the motion of the riuers bee streight, or Circular. The doubts on both sides will best appeare by a figure first drawne: wherein, Let (_HMO_) be the Meridian of _Alexandria_ in _aegipt_, or of the Mouth of _Nilus_ and answerable to the meridian of the Heauens.

Another in the Earth (_XBY_.) Let (_B_) bee the mouth of _Nilus_, and (_C_) the fountaine and head of it. Now the mouth of _Nilus_, where it runnes into the mediterranian Sea, is placed by geographers in the 31. degree of the North lat.i.tud; & the head of _Nilus_ where it riseth is placed by _Polomeus_ in 11. degree of the South lat.i.tud, but by latter & more exact geographers in the 14. degree of the Southern lat.i.tud, so that the distance betweene the founts & _Ostia_ i.e. betweene (_C_) and (_B_) is 45. degrees of a great Circle, which after the vsuall account makes 2700. one eight part of the earths compa.s.se. The quaestion now is, whether the runninge from (_C_) to (_B_) runne continually downward in a streight line; or circularly in a crooked line. If it runne in a streight line, as is most agreeable to the nature of the water it must moue either by the line (_CEB_) or by the line (_DB_.) By the line (_CEB_) it cannot moue: for when it is come to (_E_,) it will stand still. Because from (_E_) to (_B_) it must moue vpward, if it moue at all, which is contrary to the nature of water. If therefore it moue by a streight line it can bee noe other, but (_BD_,) and so from (_D_) to (_B_) it shall continually descend; for of all places betweene (_D_,) & (_B_) (_B_) is the nearest to (_A_.) But then the fountaine must not bee in (_B_) but higher in (_D_) which semees altogether improbable or impossible. For first the line (_AD_) would bee notably and sent by longer then the line (_AB_) For the compa.s.se of the earth being about 24000. Miles, and the semidiameter (_AB_,) or (_AC_) 3828. miles the line (_CD_,) would bee 1581.

miles, which cannot bee true, if as wee haue proued before, the earth bee round, and that the highest hills make noe sensible inaequality. Againe they that dwell in (_D_) should see the North Pole starre (_N_) as well as they that dwell in (_B_,) which also is false. So then the riuer cannot runne either by (_EB_) or (_DB_) Runnes it then circularly by the line (_CWB_?) This seemes probable, and the rather because heereby a reason of the originall of Riuers might more easily bee giuen. For the fountaines (_C_) lying euen with the superficies of the Sea, the water may easily pa.s.se through the hollowes of the earth, and breake out at (_C_) without ascendinge. But here also are some difficulties: for first wee find by experience that the fountaines of most riuers, and those greate ons too, lye sensibly higher then the plaine surface of the Sea. Againe, if the riuer moue directly round, what should bee the cause that begins and continues this motion? It is a motion besides the nature of the water, and therefore violent, what should driue it forward from the Sea to (_C_,) and from (_C_) to (_B_,) when the water is at (_C_) or (_W_,) it is as neere to the Center (_A_) as when it is at (_B_,) and therefore it should seeme with more liklyhood it would stand still; for why should it striue to goe further, seeing where it is, it is as neare to the Center as whither it runnes. Or if some violence doe driue it from (_C_,) towards (_W_,) yet (as it is the nature of violent motions) the further it goes the slower it will runne, till in the end it stand still, if there bee noe aduantadge of ground to helpe it forward.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

As a bowle throwne downe a hill runnes easily and farre, if it once bee sett a going; but throwne vpon the ice (an euen place) it will without any lett at last stand still. Answere may bee made hereunto, that although there bee noe aduantage of the ground, yet the water will still moue forwarde from (_C_) to (_B_) because the water that followes, pusheth forwarde that, that runnes afore. Which answere will stand, when a good cause may bee shewed, which forcibly driueth the water from the Sea vnto (_C_) and out of the fountaine (_C_;) considering that (after this supposition) they lie both in the same circular superficies. Wherefore seeing, wee cannot without any inconueniency suppose it to moue by any of these lines either streight as (_BC_) or (_BD_,) or circular as (_BWC_) let vs enquire farther.

The most likely opinion is, that the motion of the water is mixt neither directly streight, or circular, but partly one, partly the other. Or if it be circular, it is in a circle whose center is a little distant from the Center of the whole globe. Let vs place fountaines then neither in (_C_) nor (_D_) but in (_F_) I say the water runnes either partly streight by the (_FS_) and partly circular, from (_S_) to (_B_) which motion will not be inconuenient, for the water descending continually from (_F_) to (_S_) will cause it still to runne forward; or else wholy circular in the circle (_FXB_.) And this is most agreeable to truth. For so it shall both runne round as it must doe if wee will escape the otherwise vnauoidable inconueniences of the first opinion and yet in running still descend, and come neerer to the Center, as is most befitting the nature of water, so that wee need not seeke for any violent cause that moues it. Let vs then see what is the hight of (_F_) the fountaines of _Nilus_, aboue (_C_) that is (_B_) the mouth or outlet of it into the Sea. The vsuall allowance in watercourses is one foot in descent for 200.

foot in running, but if this bee thought to much because water will runne awaie vpon any inequality of ground, for euery 500.

foote allow one for descent, & so much we may with reason, in regard of the swiftnes of many riuers, yea the most, which in many places runnes headlong, in all places very swiftly (especially _Nilus_ whose cateracts or downfalls are notable) which cannot bee without some notable decliuity of the ground.

Thus then the whole course of _Nilus_ being 2700. miles from (_F_) to (_B_) the perpendicular or plumb descent of it (_CF_) will be 5. miles. And so high shall the fountaine stand aboue the mouth, and the surface of the plaine Land (for riuers commonly arise at foot of hills) which is (_BXF_) swell vp aboue the surface of the Sea (_BWC_) or (_BY_) which hight of the Land aboue the Sea although it bee greater then is the height of the highest mo[~u]taines aboue the plaine Land, yet it is nothing in comparison of the whole Earth. And this being granted (as with most probabilitie of reason it may) it will appeare that G.o.d in the beginning of the world imposed noe perpetuall violence vpon nature, in gathering togeather, the waters into one place, and being so gathered in keeping them from runing backe to cover the earth. At the first so soone as those hollow channells were prepared, the water did naturally slide downe into them, and out of them without miraculous power they cannot returne. For if the sea (_BY_) should overflow the land towards (_F_) the water must ascend in running from (_B_) to (_F_) which is contrary to its nature. Certainly the midland countries, whence springs of great rivers vsually arise, doe ly so high, that the sea cannot naturally overflow them. For as for that opinion that the water of the sea in the middle lies on a heape higher then the water that is by the sh.o.r.e; and so that it is a harder matter to saile out of a Haven to seaward, then to come in (because they goe vpward): this is an empty speculation contray to experience, and the grounds of nature it selfe, as might easily be shewed. All the difficulty that is in this opinion, is to giue a reason how the waters mount vp to (_F_,) and whence the water comes that should flow out of so high a place of the earth, wherein I thinke as in many other secrets of nature we must content our selues with ignorance, seeing so many vaine conjectures haue taken no better successe.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

CAP. 4.

_Of the circles of the earth._

In a round body as the earth is, there can be no distinction of parts, & places, without the helpe of some lines drawen or imagined to be drawen vpon it. Now though there are not, nor can be any circles truly drawen vpon the earth, yet because there is a good ground in nature and reason of things for them, we must imagine them to be drawen vpon the earth, as truly as we see them described vpon a Globe or in a plaine paper. Further this must be noted, that all circles on the earth haue the like opposite vnto them conceaved to be the Heavenes, vnder which they are directly scituated. Thus knowen, the circles that wee are to take the speciall notice of are of two sorts, Greater and Lesser.

_The greater circles are those which devide this earthly globe into equall halfes or Haemispheres._

_The lesser are those which devide it into two vnequall parts, one bigger, another lesse._

{ 1 aequator.

Of the former sort there { 2 Meridian.

are foure, the { 3 Horizon.

{ 4 Zodiack, or Eclipticke.

1 _The aequitor or aequonoctiall line, is a line drawen iust in the midst of the earth, from East to West, which compa.s.seth it as a girdle doth a mans body, and devidith it into two equall parts, one on the North side, the other on the South_ The two points in the earth that are every way farthest distant from it North, & South are called the Poles of the earth which doe directly stand vnder the two like points in the Heaven, so called because the Heaven turnes about vpon them, as the Earth doth in a Globe that's set in a frame. This circle is of the first & princ.i.p.all note and vse in Geography, because all measurings for distances of places and quarters of the Earth are reckoned in it, or from it. It is called the aequinoctiall, because when the Sunne in the Heavens comes to be directly over that circle in the earth, the daies & nights are of equall length in all parts of the world.

Marriners call it by a kind of excellency, _The line_. Vpon the Globe it is easily discerned being drawen bigger then any other circles from East to West, and with small divisions.

2 _The Meridian, if a line that is drawen quite crosse the aequinoctiall, and pa.s.seth through the Poles of the Earth, going directly North and South._ It is called the Meridian, because when the Sunne stands just over that circle it is _Meridies i.d._ noone day. It may be conceaued thus, at noone day, when it is just twelue a clocke, turne your face towards the South, and then imagine with your selfe two circles drawen, one in the Heavens, pa.s.sing from the North iust over your head through the body of the Sunne downe to the South, and so round vnder the earth vp againe to the North Pole. Another vpon the surface of the earth pa.s.sing through your feete just vnder the Sunne, and so compa.s.sing the earth round till it meete at your feete againe, and these are Meridians answering one to another. Now the Meridian is not one only, as was the aequinoctiall, but many still varying according to the place wherein you are, as for example.

At _London_ there is one Meridian, at _Oxford_ another, at _Bristow_ another, & so along Eastward or Westward. For it is noone at _London_ sooner then at _Oxford_, and at _Oxford_ sooner then at _Bristow_. Vpon the globe there are many drawen, all which pa.s.se through the poles, and goe North and South, but there is one more remarkeable then the rest, drawen broad with small divisions, which runneth through the Canary Ilands, or through the Ilands of _Azores_ Westward of _Spaine_, which is counted the first Meridian in regard of reckoning and measuring of distances of places one from another; for otherwise there is neither first nor last in the round earth. But some place must bee appointed where to beginne the account and those Ilands haue beene thought fittest, because no part of the World that lay westward was knowne to the Ancients further then that: and as they began to reckon there, we follow them. This circle is called in greeke [Greek: Mesembrinos].

3. The Horizon is two fold: { Sensible or appearing.

{ Intelligible or true.

_The Sensible or appearing Horizon is the s.p.a.ce of the earth so farre as in an open plaine, or vpon some Hill a man may see round about him._ The brim or edge of the earth further then which you cannot see, that is the Horizon, or as some call it the _Finitor_. Because _finet_ or terminat _visum_ it setts the limits or bounds to your sight, beyond which nothing can bee seene vpon the earth. This is greater or lesser, according as the height of the eye aboue the plaine superficies of the earth, is more or lesse. The most exact triall hereof is at Sea, where there are no mountaines nor any vnequall risings of the water to hinder the sight, as there are at land. For example let (_CBAF_) be the superficies of the Sea and let a mans eye bee placed in (_X_) aboue the Sea; as the eye stands higher or lower so will the distance seene be more or lesse, as if the hight of (_XA_) be 6 foot which is ordinary the height of a man, the eye looking from (_X_) to (_B_) shall see 2 miles and 3 quarters, if (_X_) be 20 foote high (_BA_) will bee fiue miles, if 40 foote 7 miles, if 50 foote 8 miles.[1] So that from the mast of a ship 50 foote high, a man may see round about at sea 8 miles every way, toward (_BG_) and (_F_). So farre may the water it selfe be seene, but any high thing on the Water may be seene farther, 16, or 20 miles according as the height is, as the ship at (_C_) may be seene from (_X_) as far more as it is from (_A_) to (_B_). There can be therefore no certaine quant.i.ty and s.p.a.ce set downe for this sensible Horizon, which continually varies according to the height of the eye aboue the plaine ground or sea. This Horrizon is not at all painted on the globe nor can be.

[Footnote 1: See _Wright_ of Navigation p. 229.]

[Ill.u.s.tration]

_The intelligible or true Horizon is a line which girts the earth round in the midst, and divides it into two equall parts or Haemispheares the vppermost vpon the top & middle point whereof wee dwell, and that which is vnder vs._ Opposite to this in the Heavens is another Horizon, which likewise cuts the Heaven into two Hemispheres, the vpper and the lower. Aboue which circle when any starre or the Sunne is moued, it then riseth vnto vs, and setteth vnto those that dwell opposite vnto vs, and so on the contrary, you may conceiue it best thus, if standing vpon a hill, or some open place, where you may perfectly see the setting of the Sunne, you marke when the Sun is halfe gone out of your sight, you may perceiue the body of the Sunne cut in two, as it were by a line, going along through it, the halfe aboue is yet seene, that vnderneath is gone out of your sight. This line is but a peece of the Horrizon, which if you conceiue to be drawen vpward about the World from the West to the North, and so by East and South, to West againe you haue the whole Horrizon described.

This circle is not drawen vpon the body of the globe, because it is variable; but stands one the outside of it, beeing a broad circle of wood couered with paper on which are sett the moneths and days of the yeare, both in the old and new Calender, and also the 12 signes, and the points of the compa.s.se. All which are easily discerned by the beholdinge. The vse of this Horizon is not so much in Geographie as in Astronomie.

_The Zodiake is a circle which compa.s.seth the earth like a belt, crossing the aequator slopewise, not streight as the Meridians doe._ Opposite to it in the Heauens is another circle of the same name, wherein are the 12. signes, and in which the Sunne keepes his owne proper course all the yeare long, neuer declining from it on the one side or other. The vse hereof in Geography is but litle only to shew what people they are ouer whose heads the Sunne comes to bee once or twice a yeare; who are all those that dwell with in 23. degrees of the Aequator; for so much is the declination, or sloping of the _Zodiacke_. This circle is also called the Eclipticke line, because when the Sunne and Moone stand both in this circle opposite each to other, then there happens an Eclipse of the Sunne or Mone, vpon a globe it is easily discerned, by the sloping of it from the Aequator, and the diuisions of it into 12. parts, and euery of those 12. into 30.

degrees.

_These are the greater circles: the lesser follow; which are all of one nature, and are called by one generall name: sc.

Parallels, because they are so drawen on each side of the Aequator, as they are equidistant vnto it euery way._ Many of this kinde are drawne vpon the globe (as is easie to bee seene) and may bee conceaued to bee drawne vpon the earth: but there are only two sorts cheifely to bee marked: namely the

{ Tropickes and the } { Polar circles. }

_The tropickes are two, parallel circles distant on each side of the Aequator 23. degrees shewing the farthest bounds of the Sunns declination North or South from the Aequator, or the midest of heauen._ And therefore they are called tropickes a [Greek: trepothai] _vertendo_, because when the Sunne comes ouer these lines, hee either turnes away from vs, as in the Summer, or turnes toward vs againe as in the winter: There are then two of them _vid._

{ 1 The Tropicke of Cancer which lies on the North side { of the Aequator, to which when the Sunne comes, it { makes the longest day in Summer.

{ { 2 The Tropicke of Capricorne, lying Southward of the { Aequator, to which when the Sunne comes, it makes the { shortest day in winter.

_The Polar circles are two parallels drawne by the poles of the Zodiacke compa.s.singe about the poles of the world, being distant from them euery way 23 degrees. These are two._

1 _The Articke Circle that compa.s.seth about the North Pole: it is so called because that in the Heavens (where vnto this in the earth lies opposite) runs through the constellation of the great Beare, which in greeke is called [Greek: arktos]_

2 _The Antarticke circle that compa.s.seth about the South Pole, & is placed opposite vnto the former._ All these with the former are easily known vp[~o] the Globe by these descripti[~o]s, & names vsually added vnto th[~e]. But because maps are of an esier price, & more c[~o]mon vse then Globes, it will be needfull to shew how all these circles, which are drawne most naturally vpon a round Globe, may also as truly, and profitably for knowledge and vse be described vpon a plaine paper. Whereby we shall vnderstand the reason of those lines which We see in the vsuall Mapps of the world, both how they are drawne, and wherefore they serue. Vnderstand therefore, that in laying downe the globe vpon a plaine paper, you must imagine the globe to be cut in two halfes through the midst, and so to be pressed downe flat to the paper; as if you should take a hollow dish, and with your hand squieze the bottom down, till it lie flat vpon a bord, or any other plaine thing for then will those circles that before were of equall distance, runne closer together towards the midst.

After this conceit, vniversall Maps are made of two fashions, according as the globe may be devided two waies, either cutting quite through by the meridian from North to South, as if you should cut an apple by the eye and the stalke, or cutting it through the aequinoctiall, East and West, as one would divide an apple through the midst, betweene the eye & the stalke. The former makes two faces, or hemispheares, the East and the West hemispheare. The latter makes likewise two Hemispheares, the North and the South. Both suppositions are good, and befitting the nature of the globe: for as touching such vniversall maps, wherein the world is represented not in two round faces, but all in one square plot, the ground wherevpon such descriptions are founded, is lesse naturall and agreeable to the globe, for it supposeth the earth to be like a Cylinder (or role of bowling allies) which imagination, vnlesse it be well qualified, is vtterly false,[2] and makes all such mappes faulty in the scituation of places. Wherefore omitting this, we will shew the description of the two former only, both which are easie to be done.

[Footnote 2: Of this Hypothesis see _Wrights_ errors of navigation.]

1 To describe an aequinoctiall planispheare, draw a circle (_ACBD_) and inscribe in it two diameters (_AB_) & (_CD_) cutting each other at right angles, and the whole circle into foure quadrants: each whereof devide into 90. parts, or degrees. The line (_AB_) doth fitly represent halfe of the aequator, as the line (_CD_) in which the points (_C_) & (_D_) are the two poles, halfe of the Meridian: for these circles the eye being in a perpendicular line from the point of concurrence (as in this projection it is supposed) must needs appeare streight. To draw the other, which will appeare crooked, doe thus. Lie a rule from the Pole (_C_) to every tenth or fift degree of the halfe circle (_ADB_) noting in the aequator (_AB_) every intersection of it and the rule. The like doe from the point (_B_) to the semicircle (_CAD_) noting also the intersections in the Meridian (_CD_) Then the diameters (_CB_) and (_AB_) being drawne out at both ends, as farre as may suffice, finding in the line (_DC_) the center of the tenth division from (_A_) to (_C_) and from (_B_) to (_C_), & of the first point of intersection noted in the meridian fr[~o]

the aequator towards (_C_) by a way familiar to Geometricians connect the three points, and you haue the paralell of 10.

degrees from the aequator: the like must bee done in drawing the other paralells on either side, the aequator; as also in drawing the Meridians from centers found in the line (_AB_) in like maner continued. All which is ill.u.s.trated by the following diagram.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

2 To describe a Polar Planisphaere, draw a circle (_ACBD_) on the center (_E_) & as before, inscribe in it two diameters (_AB_) and (_BC_) cutting each other at right angles, and the circle into foure quadrants. Each quadrant being deuided into 90. parts, draw from euery 5^{th} or 10^{th} of those parts a diameter to the opposite point: these lines all concurring in the center (_E_) being the pole, are as so many Meridians. Next, hauing cutt the halfe of any one of the former diameters into 9 parts, as (_ED_) in the points (_FGHIKLMN_) draw on the center (_E_) so many circles and these represent the paralells of the Globe, being also here true paralells.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

CAP. 5.

_Of divers Distinctions, and Divisions of the earth._

Next after the Circles of the Earth, wee may not vnfitly handle the seuerall Divisions and distinctions which geographers make of the parts, and inhabitants of the earth. These are many, but wee will briefely runne them ouer.

1 The first and most plaine is by the Coasts of the Heauens, and rising, and Setting of the Sunne, so it is distinguished into the { East where the Sunne ariseth. _Oreins_, _Ortus_ { [Greek: anatole].

{ West where the Sunne goeth downe. _occidens_.

{ North: betweene both fromwards the Sunne at Noone.

{ _Septentrio_.

{ South: betweene both towards the Sun at Noone.