Why People Believe Weird Things Part 10

So, in sum, being either high or low in intelligence is orthogonal to and independent of the normalness or weirdness of beliefs one holds. But these variables are not without some interaction effects. High intelligence, as noted in my Easy Answer, makes one skilled at defending beliefs arrived at for non-smart reasons. In chapter 3 I discuss a study conducted by psychologist David Perkins (1981), in which he found a positive relationship between intelligence and the ability to justify beliefs, and a negative relationship between intelligence and the ability to consider other beliefs as viable. That is to say, smart people are better at rationalizing their beliefs with reasoned arguments, but as a consequence they are less open to considering other positions. So, although intelligence does not affect what you believe, it does influence how beliefs are justified, rationalized, and defended after the beliefs are acquired for non-smart reasons.

Enough theory. As the architect Mies van der Rohe noted, G.o.d dwells in the details. The following examples of the difference between intelligence and belief are carefully chosen not from the lunatic fringe or culturally marginalized, but from the socially mainstream and especially from the academy. That is what makes the Hard Question so hard. It is one thing to evaluate the claims of a government coverup from a raving conspiratorialist publishing a newsletter out of his garage in Fringeville, Idaho; it is quite another when it comes from a Columbia University political science professor, or from a Temple University history professor, or from an Emory University social scientist, or from a multimillionaire business genius from Silicon Valley, or from a Pulitzer Prize-winning professor of psychiatry at Harvard University.

UFOs and Alien Abductions: A Weird Belief with Smart Supporters UFOs and alien abductions meet my criteria for a weird thing because the claim that such sightings and experiences represent actual encounters with extraterrestrial intelligences is (1) unaccepted by most people in astronomy, exobiology, and the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (despite the near universal desire by pract.i.tioners to find life of any grade somewhere other than earth), (2) extremely unlikely (although not logically impossible), and (3) is largely based on anecdotal and uncorroborated evidence. Are UFO and alien abduction claims supported by smart people? While the community of believers used to be populated largely by those in the nooks and crannies of society's fringes, they have successfully migrated into the cultural mainstream. In the 1950s and 1960s, those who told stories of alien encounters were, at best, snickered at behind closed doors (and sometimes when the doors were wide open) or, at worst, sent to psychiatrists for mental health evaluations. And they were always the b.u.t.t of jokes among scientists. But in the 1970s and 1980s a gradual shift occurred in the credentials of the believers, and in the 1990s they received a boost from the academy that has helped metastasize their beliefs into society's main body.

Consider Jodi Dean's widely reviewed 1998 book Aliens in America. Aliens in America. Dean is a Columbia University Ph.D., a professor of political science at Hobart and William Smith Colleges, and a noted feminist scholar. Her book is published by Cornell University Press and begins as if it is going to be a thoughtful sociology of UFOlogy with a thesis that abductees feel "alienated" from modern American society because of economic insecurities, threats of environmental destruction, worldwide militarism, colonialism, racism, misogyny, and other cultural bogeymen: "My argument is that the aliens infiltrating American popular cultures provide icons through which to access the new conditions of democratic politics at the millennium." Since Dean rejects science and rationality as methods of discriminating between sense and nonsense, we "have no criteria for choosing among policies and verdicts, treatments and claims. Even further, we have no recourse to procedures, be they scientific or juridical, that might provide some 'supposition of reasonableness.' " For Dean, not only is science not a solution, it is part of the problem: " 'Scientists' are the ones who have problems with the 'rationality' of those in the UFO community. 'Scientists' are the ones who feel a need to explain why some people believe in flying saucers, or who dismiss those who do so as 'distorted' or 'prejudiced' or 'ignorant.' " Indeed, Dean concludes, since postmodernism has shown all truth to be relative and consensual, then the UFOlogists' claims are as true as anyone's claims: "The early ufologists fought against essentialist understandings of truth that would inscribe truth in objects (and relations between objects) in the world. Rejecting this idea, they relied on an understanding of truth as consensual. If our living in the world is an outcome of a consensus on reality, then stop and notice that not everyone is consenting to the view of reality espoused by science and government." Dean is a Columbia University Ph.D., a professor of political science at Hobart and William Smith Colleges, and a noted feminist scholar. Her book is published by Cornell University Press and begins as if it is going to be a thoughtful sociology of UFOlogy with a thesis that abductees feel "alienated" from modern American society because of economic insecurities, threats of environmental destruction, worldwide militarism, colonialism, racism, misogyny, and other cultural bogeymen: "My argument is that the aliens infiltrating American popular cultures provide icons through which to access the new conditions of democratic politics at the millennium." Since Dean rejects science and rationality as methods of discriminating between sense and nonsense, we "have no criteria for choosing among policies and verdicts, treatments and claims. Even further, we have no recourse to procedures, be they scientific or juridical, that might provide some 'supposition of reasonableness.' " For Dean, not only is science not a solution, it is part of the problem: " 'Scientists' are the ones who have problems with the 'rationality' of those in the UFO community. 'Scientists' are the ones who feel a need to explain why some people believe in flying saucers, or who dismiss those who do so as 'distorted' or 'prejudiced' or 'ignorant.' " Indeed, Dean concludes, since postmodernism has shown all truth to be relative and consensual, then the UFOlogists' claims are as true as anyone's claims: "The early ufologists fought against essentialist understandings of truth that would inscribe truth in objects (and relations between objects) in the world. Rejecting this idea, they relied on an understanding of truth as consensual. If our living in the world is an outcome of a consensus on reality, then stop and notice that not everyone is consenting to the view of reality espoused by science and government."

With this relativist view of truth Dean never tells us whether she believes the UFO/abduction narratives told by her subjects. So I asked her just that in a radio interview, to which she replied: "I believe that they believe their stories." I acknowledged the clarification but pressed the point: "But what do you believe?" Dean refused to answer the question. Fair enough, I suppose, since she is trying to take a nonjudgmental perspective (although I could not get her to offer an opinion even off the air and off the record). But my point here is that by so doing this smart person is lending credence to a weird belief, adding to its credibility as an acceptable tenet of truth that should be part of acceptable social dialogue when, in fact, there is no more evidence for the existence of aliens on earth than there is for fairies (which, in the 1920s, enjoyed their own cultural heyday and the backing of smart people like the creator of Sherlock Holmes, Arthur Conan Doyle; see Randi 1982).

Where Dean equivocates on the veracity question, Temple University history professor David Jacobs does not. Jacobs, who earned his doctorate from the University of Wisconsin and subsequently published his dissertation in 1975 as The UFO Controversy in America The UFO Controversy in America through Indiana University Press, in 1992 wrote through Indiana University Press, in 1992 wrote Secret Life: Firsthand Accounts of UFO Abductions Secret Life: Firsthand Accounts of UFO Abductions (even landing a mainstream trade publisher in Simon & Schuster, one of the largest and most prestigious publishing houses in the world). In 1998 he ratcheted up the stakes with (even landing a mainstream trade publisher in Simon & Schuster, one of the largest and most prestigious publishing houses in the world). In 1998 he ratcheted up the stakes with The Threat: The Secret Agenda-What the Aliens Really Want... and How They Plan to Get It. The Threat: The Secret Agenda-What the Aliens Really Want... and How They Plan to Get It. He admits in this latest book that "when I talk about the subject to my colleagues in the academic community, I know they think that my intellectual abilities are seriously impaired." Shortly after He admits in this latest book that "when I talk about the subject to my colleagues in the academic community, I know they think that my intellectual abilities are seriously impaired." Shortly after The Threat The Threat was released, I interviewed Jacobs on my weekly NPR radio show in Los Angeles. His intellectual abilities are not impaired in the least. I found him to be bright, articulate, and completely committed to his belief. He spoke like an academic, explained his theory and evidence with the cool dispatch of a seasoned scholar, and acted as if this claim were no different than discussing some other aspect of twentieth-century American history, which he teaches. was released, I interviewed Jacobs on my weekly NPR radio show in Los Angeles. His intellectual abilities are not impaired in the least. I found him to be bright, articulate, and completely committed to his belief. He spoke like an academic, explained his theory and evidence with the cool dispatch of a seasoned scholar, and acted as if this claim were no different than discussing some other aspect of twentieth-century American history, which he teaches.

Yet Jacobs' books resound with the anthem "I know this sounds weird, but I'm a smart guy." His first book includes a foreword by Harvard's John Mack (more on Mack below), who praises Jacobs as "scholarly and dispa.s.sionate," the product of "rigorous scholarship," "careful observation," and "meticulous doc.u.mentation." In his second book his Ph.D. graces not only the cover, but appears as a header on every page, again punching home the message to the reader that no matter how weird it all seems, a Doctor of Philosophy is endorsing it. Jacobs' narrative style is designed to sound scholarly and scientific. He speaks of his "research," the "methodologies" used, his fellow "investigators," their "huge database," the "doc.u.mentation" in support of the database, the numerous "theories," "hypotheses," and "evidence" that confirm not only the fact that the aliens are here, but enlighten us about their agenda. Even though this field of study has not one iota of physical evidence-all claims depend entirely on blurry photographs, grainy videos, recovered memories through hypnosis, and endless anecdotes about things that go b.u.mp in the night-Jacobs admits these limitations of his "data," but argues that if you combine them you can make the leap from skepticism to belief: "Our encounters with the abduction phenomenon have often come through the haze of confabulation, channeling, and unreliable memories reported by inexperienced or incompetent researchers. It smacks so much of cultural fantasy and psychogenesis that the barriers to acceptance of its reality seem unsurmount-able." Indeed, but never underestimate the power of belief. "Yet, I am persuaded that the abduction phenomenon is real. And as a result, the intellectual safety net with which I operated for so many years is now gone. I am as vulnerable as the abductees themselves. I should 'know better,' but I embrace as real a scenario that is both embarra.s.sing and difficult to defend." If the evidence is so weak for this phenomenon, then how can a smart guy like Jacobs believe in it? His answer, coming in the final pages of the book, closes the belief off to counter evidence: "The aliens have fooled us. They lulled us into an att.i.tude of disbelief, and hence complacency, at the very beginning of our awareness of their presence." It is the perfect circular (and impenetrable) argument. The aliens have either caused your belief or your skepticism. Either way, aliens exist.

Whereas Jacobs admits that his evidence is anecdotal and thus nonfal-sifiable, Emory University's Courtney Brown, a professor of political science with a couple of bestselling books on aliens and UFOs by mainstream publishers, grounds his beliefs on a method of "data collection" he calls "Scientific Remote Viewing." SRV (both the name and the abbreviation are "registered service marks of Farsight, Inc.," so noted on his copyright page). SRV, more commonly known as Remote Viewing, is the process employed by a group of researchers hired by the CIA to try to close the "psi gap" (similar to the missile gap) between the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1980s (one of them, Ed Dames, was Brown's mentor). During the cold war there was fear on the part of some American government officials that the Russians might have made greater advances in psychic power. So the CIA established a small department that spent $20 million in ten years to determine if they could "remote view" the location of missile silos, MIAs, and gather other intelligence information. The name is almost self-explanatory. To remote view you sit in a room and attempt to "see" (in your mind's eye, of sorts) the target object whose location could be anywhere in the world. After learning the RV ropes, from his home in the suburbs of Atlanta and then from his own inst.i.tute dedicated to promoting SRV-The Farsight Inst.i.tute-Brown began to remote view aliens and extraterrestrials.

Like Jacobs' degree, Brown's Ph.D. is prominently displayed on his books. Interestingly, however, his Emory University connection is nowhere to be found in his second book, Cosmic Explorers: Scientific Remote Viewing, Extraterrestrials, and a Message for Mankind. Cosmic Explorers: Scientific Remote Viewing, Extraterrestrials, and a Message for Mankind. I asked him about this in a 1999 radio interview. Emory, it would seem, wants nothing to do with UFOlogy and alien encounters-Brown had to sign a doc.u.ment specifying that when he is discussing his encounters with aliens to the media and the public, no mention of the university is to be made. And, like Jacobs, Brown came off on the air as a thoughtful and intelligent scientist "just following the data" (as they are all wont to say) wherever that might lead. I asked him about this in a 1999 radio interview. Emory, it would seem, wants nothing to do with UFOlogy and alien encounters-Brown had to sign a doc.u.ment specifying that when he is discussing his encounters with aliens to the media and the public, no mention of the university is to be made. And, like Jacobs, Brown came off on the air as a thoughtful and intelligent scientist "just following the data" (as they are all wont to say) wherever that might lead.

The claims in Brown's two books are nothing short of spectacularly weird. Through his numerous SRV sessions he says he has spoken with Jesus and Buddha (both, apparently, are advanced aliens), visited other inhabited planets, time traveled to Mars back when it was fully inhabited by intelligent ETs, and has even determined that aliens are living among us-one group in particular resides underground in New Mexico. When I asked him about these unusual claims on the air he balked, redirecting the conversation to the "scientific" aspects of remote viewing, how valid and reliable a method it is for collecting data, how as a social scientist he has applied the rigorous methodologies of the statistical sciences to his newfound research methodology, and that this should all be taken very seriously by scientists. (His first book, published in 1996, was ent.i.tled Cosmic Voyage: A Scientific Discovery of Extraterrestrials Visiting Earth) Cosmic Voyage: A Scientific Discovery of Extraterrestrials Visiting Earth) The rhetoric of his written narrative also wafts with scientism meant to convey the message that this weird thing is being presented by a very smart person. Consider just one randomly chosen pa.s.sage: The rhetoric of his written narrative also wafts with scientism meant to convey the message that this weird thing is being presented by a very smart person. Consider just one randomly chosen pa.s.sage:A P4 1/2S is the same as a P4 1/2, but it is a sketch rather than a verbal description. When the viewer perceives some visual data in Phase 4 that can be sketched, the viewer writes "P4 1/2 S" in either the physicals or the sub-s.p.a.ce column, depending on whether the sketch is to be of something in physical reality or subs.p.a.ce reality. The viewer then takes another piece of paper, positions it lengthwise, labels it P4 1/2S centered at the top, and gives it a page number that is the same as the matrix page containing the column entry "P4 1/2S," with an A appended to it. Thus, if the entry for the P4 1/2S is located on page 9, then the P4 1/2S sketch is located on page 9A.What this pa.s.sage describes is different methods a remote viewer can use to record different aspects of the fantasy trip: either it is a voyage through the physical world or through "subs.p.a.ce" existence. My point is not to ridicule through obfuscation but to reveal the lengths smart people will go to in order to rationalize a weird belief. When Brown appears on Art Bell's late night radio show he can wax poetic about alien invasions and Jesus' advice. But when he's on my show-by definition a science show broadcast in Southern California and listened to by many from the Caltech, JPL, and aeros.p.a.ce communities, he wants only to discuss the rigors of his scientific methodologies.

In like manner did the multimillionaire Silicon Valley business genius Joe Firmage (1999) respond when I interviewed him on the radio. The 28-year-old founder of the $3 billion Internet company USWeb (who had already sold his first Internet company for $24 million when he was only 19) requested that he be introduced as the founder and chairman of the International s.p.a.ce Sciences Organization (ISSO) and was interested only in discussing his love of science and his new work as a "scientist" for ISSO (to my knowledge he has no formal training as a scientist). What about all those press reports that erupted immediately following his announcement that he was quitting USWeb to pursue his belief that UFOs have landed and that the United States government had captured some of the alien technology and "back-engineered" it and fed it to the American science and technology industries? They exaggerated and distorted what he really believes, Firmage explained. He never actually said that he believed the U.S. government stole alien technologies. Nor did he really want to elaborate upon a 1997 experience he had (he seemed genuinely uncomfortable when I brought it up) with an alien intelligence. The media, he explained, exaggerated that one as well. This I found odd, even disingenuous, since it was his own public relations company that generated all the media attention, including the stories of stolen alien technology and his life-changing alien encounter.

In the fall of 1997, Firmage says that he was awakened in the early morning to see "a remarkable being, clothed in brilliant white light hovering over my bed." The being asked Firmage: "Why have you called me here?" Firmage says he replied: "I want to travel in s.p.a.ce." The alien questioned his desire and inquired why such a wish should be granted. "Because I'm willing to die for it," Firmage answered. At this point, says Firmage, out of the alien being "emerged an electric blue sphere, just smaller than a basketball. ... It left his body, floated down and entered me. Instantly I was overcome by the most unimaginable ecstasy I have ever experienced, a pleasure vastly beyond o.r.g.a.s.m. . . . Something had been given to me." The result was Firmage's ISSO and his 1999 Internet electronic book immod-esdy ent.i.tled The Truth, The Truth, a rambling 244-page ma.n.u.script filled with warnings to humanity that could have been taken out of a 1950s B science fiction film. The book is heavily sprinkled with the jargon of physics and aeronautics, including Firmage's goal to convince the "scientific establishment" of the reality of UFOs and such advanced technologies as Zero Point Energy from the vacuum of s.p.a.ce, "propellantless propulsion" and "gravitational propulsion" for "greater-than-light" travel, "vacuum fluctuations" to alter "gravitational and inertial ma.s.ses," and the like. a rambling 244-page ma.n.u.script filled with warnings to humanity that could have been taken out of a 1950s B science fiction film. The book is heavily sprinkled with the jargon of physics and aeronautics, including Firmage's goal to convince the "scientific establishment" of the reality of UFOs and such advanced technologies as Zero Point Energy from the vacuum of s.p.a.ce, "propellantless propulsion" and "gravitational propulsion" for "greater-than-light" travel, "vacuum fluctuations" to alter "gravitational and inertial ma.s.ses," and the like.

Again, my point is not to belittle, but to understand. Why would a smart man like Joe Firmage give up such a remarkably lucrative and successful career as a Silicon Valley wizard to chase the chimera of aliens? Well, he was raised as a Mormon but in his teen years he "began to have questions about the more dogmatic aspects of the religion." Mormons believe in direct human-angel contact based on the claim that the Church's founder, Joseph Smith, was contacted by the angel Moroni and guided to the sacred golden tablets from which the Book of Mormon was written. In The Truth, The Truth, Firmage explains that the revelation "was received by a man named Joseph Smith, whose descriptions of encounters with brilliant, white-clothed beings are almost indistinguishable from many modern-day accounts of first-hand encounters with 'visitors.'" So, Joseph Smith had a close encounter of the third kind. And apparently he was by no means the first. Eighteen hundred years earlier St. John the Divine received his "revelation" from which the last book in the Bible was written, and shortly before that a carpenter from the tiny hamlet of Nazareth experienced his own visions and epiphanies from on high. Although he does not say it directly, the inference is clear: Jesus the Christ, St. John the Divine, Joseph Smith, and Joseph Firmage each made contact with one of these higher beings, and as a consequence changed the world. Firmage found his calling, and the meaning of his close encounters: Firmage explains that the revelation "was received by a man named Joseph Smith, whose descriptions of encounters with brilliant, white-clothed beings are almost indistinguishable from many modern-day accounts of first-hand encounters with 'visitors.'" So, Joseph Smith had a close encounter of the third kind. And apparently he was by no means the first. Eighteen hundred years earlier St. John the Divine received his "revelation" from which the last book in the Bible was written, and shortly before that a carpenter from the tiny hamlet of Nazareth experienced his own visions and epiphanies from on high. Although he does not say it directly, the inference is clear: Jesus the Christ, St. John the Divine, Joseph Smith, and Joseph Firmage each made contact with one of these higher beings, and as a consequence changed the world. Firmage found his calling, and the meaning of his close encounters:One of the purposes of this Internet book is to share with each of you fundamentally new ideas-ideas that one day could transform the world. In this work, I wish to propose a way to completely restructure over time our economic inst.i.tutions to operate in a manner compatible with a living Earth, while preserving the proven entrepreneurial creativity that has built a remarkable modern civilization. ... Is this a radical proposal? Absolutely. Is it insane? Yes. Is it a Utopian fantasy? Totally. Radical and insane proposals are necessary to save a short-sighted and dangerously hubris nation from self-destruction. . .. My business partner and I built USWeb Corporation, the largest Internet services company on the planet, so I know what I am talking about creating here.Indeed he does. He is a smart man with a weird belief and a lot of money to legitimize it. But neither the smarts nor the money alter one iota the fact that there exists not one piece of tangible evidence of alien visitation. And where evidence is lacking, the mind fills in the gaps, and smart minds are better at gap filling.

Cornell University, Emory University, Temple University, and Silicon Valley are impressive venues from which to launch weird salvos, but UFOlogists and the alien experiencer (the preferred term to "abduction") community received its biggest boost in 1994 with the publication of Abduction: Human Encounters with Aliens Abduction: Human Encounters with Aliens by Harvard Medical School psychiatrist John Mack. Mack's M.D. is boldly emblazoned on the cover, along with "Winner of the Pulitzer Prize" (awarded for a biography of T. E. Lawrence, not a book on psychiatry), thereby establishing credibility. The publisher might as well have printed at the bottom of the dust jacket: "smart man endorses weird belief." Mack admits in his introduction that when he first heard about abductee proponent and pioneer Budd Hopkins, and of people claiming to have been abducted by aliens, "I then said something to the effect that he must be crazy and so must they." But when Mack met some of them "they seemed in other respects quite sane." Further, as far as he could tell, these folks had nothing to gain and everything to lose in coming forth with such stories, therefore "they were troubled as a consequence of something that had apparently happened to them." Mack's skepticism morphed into belief after interviewing over a hundred alien experiencers, concluding that "there was nothing to suggest that their stories were delusional, a misinterpretation of dreams, or the product of fantasy. None of them seemed like people who would concoct a strange story for some personal purpose." by Harvard Medical School psychiatrist John Mack. Mack's M.D. is boldly emblazoned on the cover, along with "Winner of the Pulitzer Prize" (awarded for a biography of T. E. Lawrence, not a book on psychiatry), thereby establishing credibility. The publisher might as well have printed at the bottom of the dust jacket: "smart man endorses weird belief." Mack admits in his introduction that when he first heard about abductee proponent and pioneer Budd Hopkins, and of people claiming to have been abducted by aliens, "I then said something to the effect that he must be crazy and so must they." But when Mack met some of them "they seemed in other respects quite sane." Further, as far as he could tell, these folks had nothing to gain and everything to lose in coming forth with such stories, therefore "they were troubled as a consequence of something that had apparently happened to them." Mack's skepticism morphed into belief after interviewing over a hundred alien experiencers, concluding that "there was nothing to suggest that their stories were delusional, a misinterpretation of dreams, or the product of fantasy. None of them seemed like people who would concoct a strange story for some personal purpose."

Agreed, but is "concoct" the right word? I think not. "Experiencer" is an apt description because there is no doubt that the experiences these people have had are very real. The core question is, does the experience represent something exclusively inside the mind or outside in the real world? Since there is no physical evidence to confirm the validity of the latter hypothesis, the logical conclusion to draw, knowing what we do about the fantastic imagery the brain is capable of producing, is that experiencer's experiences are nothing more than mental representations of stricdy internal brain phenomena. Their motivation for telling Mack and others about these experiences, a.s.suming (naively perhaps) that they do not do it for the public attention, fame, or money, is external validation of an internal process. And the more prestigious the source of that vahdation-the "smarter" the validator is, so to speak-the more valid becomes the experience: "Hey, I'm not losing my mind-that smart guy at Harvard says it's real."

The Harvard affiliation with such fringe elements was not lost on the university's administration, who made motions to reign in Mack and squelch his alien agenda, but he retained a lawyer, held his ground on the issue of academic freedom (Mack is tenured), and won the right to continue his academic center called PEER, Program for Extraordinary Experience Research. Many questioned his motives. "He enjoys being the center of attention," said Arnold S. Relman, professor emeritus at Harvard Medical School, who led the formal academic investigation of Mack's research. "He's not taken seriously by his colleagues anymore," Relman continued, "but in the interests of academic freedom, Harvard can afford to have a couple of oddb.a.l.l.s" (quoted in Lucas 2001).

The consequences of this shift in belief for Mack-his own form of validation in a way-were profound: "What the abduction phenomenon has led me ... to see is that we partic.i.p.ate in a universe or universes that are filled with intelligences from which we have cut ourselves off, having lost the senses by which we might know them." However, allow me to fill in the ellipses: "I would now say inevitably." (Read it again with the ellipses filled.) Why inevitably? Mack's answer is enlightening: "It has become clear to me also that our restricted worldview or paradigm lies behind most of the major destructive patterns that threaten the human future- mindless corporate acquisitiveness that perpetuates vast differences between rich and poor and contributes to hunger and disease; ethnonational violence resulting in ma.s.s killing which could grow into a nuclear holocaust; and ecological destruction on a scale that threatens the survival of the earth's living systems."

The story is as old as the science fiction genre from which it sprang, and reveals the deeper mythic motif behind encounter narratives as a type of secular theology, with UEOs and aliens as G.o.ds and messiahs coming down to rescue us from our self-imposed destruction-think of Robert Wise's 1951 The Day the Earth Stood Still, The Day the Earth Stood Still, where the superior alien intelligence in this Christ allegory (the alien's Earth name was "Mr. Carpenter") comes to save the planet from nuclear armageddon. Here we glimpse a possible motive for Mack. Is he a secular saint, Moses come down from the Harvard mountain to mingle with the ma.s.ses and enlighten us to the true meaning of the cosmos? This is, perhaps, an exaggeration, but there is something deeper in Mack's story that he reveals toward the end of the introduction to his book, and that is his fascination with Thomas Kuhn's concept of the paradigm, and the revolutionary paradigm shift: where the superior alien intelligence in this Christ allegory (the alien's Earth name was "Mr. Carpenter") comes to save the planet from nuclear armageddon. Here we glimpse a possible motive for Mack. Is he a secular saint, Moses come down from the Harvard mountain to mingle with the ma.s.ses and enlighten us to the true meaning of the cosmos? This is, perhaps, an exaggeration, but there is something deeper in Mack's story that he reveals toward the end of the introduction to his book, and that is his fascination with Thomas Kuhn's concept of the paradigm, and the revolutionary paradigm shift:I knew Tom Kuhn since childhood, for his parents and mine were friends in New York and I had often attended eggnog parties at Christmastime in the Kuhns' home. What I found most hopeful was Kuhn's observation that the Western scientific paradigm had come to a.s.sume the rigidity of a theology, and that this belief system was held in place by the structures, categories, and polarities of language, such as real/unreal, exists/does not exist, objective/subjective, intrapsychic/external world, and happened/did not happen. He suggested that in pursuing my investigations I suspend to the degree that I was able all of these language forms and simply collect raw information, putting aside whether or not what I was learning fit any particular worldview. Later I would see what I had found and whether any coherent theoretical formulation would be possible.There is remarkable irony in this statement-one I find difficult to believe Kuhn would endorse-because one of the main points of Kuhn's revolutionary 1962 book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, is that it is virtually impossible for any of us to "suspend . .. language forms and simply collect raw information." We are all embedded in a worldview, locked in a paradigm, and ensconced in a culture. And, as we saw, the attribution and confirmation biases are all powerful and pervasive that none of us can escape. The language forms of alien abduction narratives are very much a part of a larger culture in twentieth-century America that includes science fiction literature about aliens, the actual exploration of s.p.a.ce, films and television programs about s.p.a.cecraft and aliens, and especially the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI) being conducted by mainstream scientists. This is, in large part, the explanation skeptics offer for the consistency of the abduction stories-the memory motifs come from these commonly experienced cultural inputs. But the point is that Mack's alleged unsullied collection of "raw information" seems disingenuous from what we know about how beliefs are formed. (I would also point out-though there is no way that Mack would know this from his one foray into the paranormal- that the identification of the Kuhnian paradigm and the call for a revolutionary shift to the believer's radical idea is made by nearly every claimant who is out of the mainstream, from UFOlogists and psychic investigators to proponents of cold fusion and perpetual motion machines.) Joe Friday's "Just the facts, ma'am" sounds good in principle, but is never conducted in practice. All observations are filtered through a model or theory, so at some point Mack's observations within a skeptical paradigm became data in support of a believing paradigm. How did this happen? is that it is virtually impossible for any of us to "suspend . .. language forms and simply collect raw information." We are all embedded in a worldview, locked in a paradigm, and ensconced in a culture. And, as we saw, the attribution and confirmation biases are all powerful and pervasive that none of us can escape. The language forms of alien abduction narratives are very much a part of a larger culture in twentieth-century America that includes science fiction literature about aliens, the actual exploration of s.p.a.ce, films and television programs about s.p.a.cecraft and aliens, and especially the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI) being conducted by mainstream scientists. This is, in large part, the explanation skeptics offer for the consistency of the abduction stories-the memory motifs come from these commonly experienced cultural inputs. But the point is that Mack's alleged unsullied collection of "raw information" seems disingenuous from what we know about how beliefs are formed. (I would also point out-though there is no way that Mack would know this from his one foray into the paranormal- that the identification of the Kuhnian paradigm and the call for a revolutionary shift to the believer's radical idea is made by nearly every claimant who is out of the mainstream, from UFOlogists and psychic investigators to proponents of cold fusion and perpetual motion machines.) Joe Friday's "Just the facts, ma'am" sounds good in principle, but is never conducted in practice. All observations are filtered through a model or theory, so at some point Mack's observations within a skeptical paradigm became data in support of a believing paradigm. How did this happen?

John Mack is smart enough to realize that the data and data collection techniques he and others use in drawing out these abduction narratives are questionable to say the least. Hypnotic regression, fantasy role playing, and suggestive talk therapy all leading to so-called recovered memories, is now well known to actually generate false memories. Of the alleged disappearance of abductees, Mack admits that "there is no firm proof that abduction was the cause of their absence." The scars from alien surgeries, Mack admits, are "usually too trivial by themselves to be medically significant." Of the missing babies from alien-human s.e.xual encounters, Mack notes that there is "not yet a case where a physician has doc.u.mented that a fetus has disappeared in relation to an abduction." And of the evidence in total, Mack confesses that it is "maddeningly subtle and difficult to corroborate with as much supporting data as firm proof would require."

To accept these shortcomings and continue his work, Mack must make a reality leap of Kuhnian proportions. The limitation is not in our methodologies of research, it is in the subjects themselves: "If the abduction phenomenon, as I suspect, manifests itself in our physical s.p.a.ce/time world but is not of it in a literal sense, our notions of accuracy of recall regarding what did or did not 'happen' (Kuhn's advice about suspending categories seems relevant here) may not apply, at least not in the literal physical sense." These aliens may not be from "s.p.a.ce," as in outer s.p.a.ce, but may be from another dimension, accessible only through these ephemeral mental states and thus immune to skeptics' demand for a body or artifact from the s.p.a.cecraft. This may be a Kuhnian model of science, but it is not Popperian since there is no way to falsify the claims. Mack's retreat to allowing "aliens" to be inner dimensional beings capable of detection only in the minds of experiencers is indistinguishable from my own hypothesis that they are entirely the product of neural activity. With no way to distinguish between these two hypotheses, we are out of the realm of science and into the field of creative literature. Science fiction, I think, would more adequately describe this entire field.

The epistemological problems from the beginning, then, are enormous, as Mack himself confesses in giving up the game of science entirely: "In this work, as in any clinically sound investigation, the psyche of the investigator, or, more accurately, the interaction of the psyches of the client and the clinician, is the means of gaining knowledge. . . . Thus experience, the reporting of that experience, and the receiving of that experience through the psyche of the investigator are, in the absence of physical verification or 'proof ... the only ways that we can know about abductions." Four hundred pages later, in a final section ent.i.tled "Paradigm Shift," Mack once again calls for a change comparable to the Copernican revolution (a favorite a.n.a.logy among paranormalists and fringers of all stripes): "It would appear that what is required is a kind of cultural ego death, more profoundly shattering (a word that many abductees use when they acknowledge the actuality of their experiences) than the Copernican revolution. . . ." How else are we to understand these alien intelligences? "It is an intelligence that provides enough evidence that something profoundly important is at work, but it does not offer the kinds of proof that would satisfy an exclusively empirical, rationalistic way of knowing."

As Mack told Robert Boynton (1994) in Esquire Esquire magazine, "People always think that aliens are either real or psychological, and I ask them to consider the possibility that they are somehow both. But that means our entire definition of reality has to change." Boynton notes that Mack has long been searching for that alternate reality through such trendy New Age beliefs as EST and holotropic breathing techniques: "He uses the latter to attain a trancelike state. During one session, he had a past-life experience in which he was a sixteenth-century Russian who had to watch while a band of Mongols decapitated his four-year-old son." In fact, Mack admitted to Carl Sagan (1996) that "I wasn't looking for this. There's nothing in my background that prepared me. It's completely persuasive because of the emotional power of these experiences." In a revealing interview in magazine, "People always think that aliens are either real or psychological, and I ask them to consider the possibility that they are somehow both. But that means our entire definition of reality has to change." Boynton notes that Mack has long been searching for that alternate reality through such trendy New Age beliefs as EST and holotropic breathing techniques: "He uses the latter to attain a trancelike state. During one session, he had a past-life experience in which he was a sixteenth-century Russian who had to watch while a band of Mongols decapitated his four-year-old son." In fact, Mack admitted to Carl Sagan (1996) that "I wasn't looking for this. There's nothing in my background that prepared me. It's completely persuasive because of the emotional power of these experiences." In a revealing interview in Time Time magazine Mack said, "I don't know why there's such a zeal to find a conventional physical explanation. We've lost all that ability to know a world beyond the physical. I am a bridge between those two worlds." magazine Mack said, "I don't know why there's such a zeal to find a conventional physical explanation. We've lost all that ability to know a world beyond the physical. I am a bridge between those two worlds."

Mack's bridge has expanded into another book (1999), Pa.s.sport to the Cosmos, Pa.s.sport to the Cosmos, in which he once again pleads that "I am not in this book seeking to establish the material reality of the alien abduction phenomenon. . . rather, I am more concerned with the meaning of these experiences for the so-called abductees and for humankind more generally." In this sense, Mack's abduction belief system operates much like religion and other faith-based beliefs, in that for those who believe proof is not necessary, for those who do not believe, proof is not possible. In other words, the belief in UFOs and alien abductions, like that of other weird beliefs, is orthogonal to and independent of the evidence for or against it, or the intelligence of its proponents, which makes my point. Q.E.D. in which he once again pleads that "I am not in this book seeking to establish the material reality of the alien abduction phenomenon. . . rather, I am more concerned with the meaning of these experiences for the so-called abductees and for humankind more generally." In this sense, Mack's abduction belief system operates much like religion and other faith-based beliefs, in that for those who believe proof is not necessary, for those who do not believe, proof is not possible. In other words, the belief in UFOs and alien abductions, like that of other weird beliefs, is orthogonal to and independent of the evidence for or against it, or the intelligence of its proponents, which makes my point. Q.E.D.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Adams, R. L., and B. N. Phillips. 1972. Motivation and Achievement Differences Among Children of Various Ordinal Birth Positions. Child Development Child Development 43:155-164. 43:155-164.

Alc.o.c.k, J. E., and Otis, L. P. 1980. Critical Thinking and Belief in the Paranormal. Psychological Reports A6-A 79 Psychological Reports A6-A 79A82.

Allen, S. 1993. The Jesus Cults: A Personal a.n.a.lysis by the Parent of a Cult Member. Skeptic 2, Skeptic 2, no. 2:36-49. no. 2:36-49.

Altea, R. [pseud.]. 1995. The Eagle and the Rose: A Remarkable True Story. The Eagle and the Rose: A Remarkable True Story. New York: Warner. New York: Warner.

Amicus Curiae Brief of Seventy-two n.o.bel Laureates, Seventeen State Academies of Science, and Seven Other Scientific Organizations, in Support of Appellees, Submitted to the Supreme Court of the United States, October Term, 1986, as Edwin W. Edwards, in His Official Capacity as Governor of Louisiana, et al., Appellants v. Don Aguillard et al., Appellees. 1986. Edwin W. Edwards, in His Official Capacity as Governor of Louisiana, et al., Appellants v. Don Aguillard et al., Appellees. 1986.

Anti-Defamation League. 1993. Hitler s Apologists: The Anti-Semitic Propaganda of Holocaust "Revisionism." Hitler s Apologists: The Anti-Semitic Propaganda of Holocaust "Revisionism." New York: Anti-Defamation League. New York: Anti-Defamation League.

App, A. 1973. The Six Million Swindle: Blackmailing the German People for HardMarks with Fabricated Corpses. The Six Million Swindle: Blackmailing the German People for HardMarks with Fabricated Corpses. Tacoma Park, Md. Tacoma Park, Md.

Applebaum, E. 1994. Rebel Without a Cause. The Jewish Week, The Jewish Week, April 8-14. April 8-14.

Aretz, E. 1970. Hexeneinmaleins einerLuge. Hexeneinmaleins einerLuge.

Ayala, F. 1986. Press Statement by Dr. Francisco Ayala. Los Angeles Skeptics Evaluative Report 2, Los Angeles Skeptics Evaluative Report 2, no. 4:7. no. 4:7.

Bacon, E 1620 (1939). Novum Organum. In The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill, The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill, ed. E. A. Burtt. New York: Random House. ed. E. A. Burtt. New York: Random House.

Bacon, E 1965. Francis Bacon: A Selection of His Works. Francis Bacon: A Selection of His Works. Ed. S. Warhaft. New York: Macmillan. Ed. S. Warhaft. New York: Macmillan.

Baker, R. A. 1987/1988. The Aliens Among Us: Hypnotic Regression Revisited. Skeptical Inquirer Skeptical Inquirer 12, no. 2:147-162. 12, no. 2:147-162.

......... 1990. They Call It Hypnosis. They Call It Hypnosis. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus.

......... 1996. Hypnosis. In The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal, The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal, ed. G. Stein. Buffalo, ed. G. Stein. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus.

Baker, R. A., and J. Nickell. 1992. Missing Pieces. Missing Pieces. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus.

315.

Baldwin, L. A., N. Koyama, and G. Teleki. 1980. Field Research on j.a.panese Monkeys: An Historical, Geographical, and Bibliographical Listing. Primates Primates 21, no. 2:268-301. 21, no. 2:268-301.

Ball, J. C. 1992. Air Photo Evidence: Auschwitz, Treblinka, Majdanek, Sobibor, Bergen Belsen, Belzec, Babi Yar, Katyn Forest. Air Photo Evidence: Auschwitz, Treblinka, Majdanek, Sobibor, Bergen Belsen, Belzec, Babi Yar, Katyn Forest. Delta, Canada: Ball Resource Services. Delta, Canada: Ball Resource Services.

Bank, S. P., and M. D. Kahn. 1982. The Sibling Bond. The Sibling Bond. New York: Basic. New York: Basic.

Barkow, J. H., L. Cosmides, and J. Tooby. 1992. The Adapted Mind. The Adapted Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Barrow, J., and F. Tipler. 1986. The Anthropic Cosmological Principle. The Anthropic Cosmological Principle. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Barston, A. 1994. Witch Craze: A New History of European Witch Hunts. Witch Craze: A New History of European Witch Hunts. New York: Pandora/HarperCollins. New York: Pandora/HarperCollins.

Ba.s.s, E., and L. Davis. 1988. The Courage to Heal: A Guide for Women Survivors of Child s.e.xual Abuse. The Courage to Heal: A Guide for Women Survivors of Child s.e.xual Abuse. New York: Reed Consumer Books. New York: Reed Consumer Books.

Bauer, Y. 1994. Jews for Sale? n.a.z.i-Jewish Negotiations, 1933-1945. Jews for Sale? n.a.z.i-Jewish Negotiations, 1933-1945. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.

Beck, A. T. 1976. Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. New York: International Universities Press. New York: International Universities Press.

Behe, M. 1996. Darwin's Black Box. Darwin's Black Box. New York: Free Press. New York: Free Press.

Bennett, G. 1987. Traditions of Belief: Women, Folklore, and the Supernatural Today. Traditions of Belief: Women, Folklore, and the Supernatural Today. London: Penguin Books. London: Penguin Books.

Bennetta, W. 1986. Looking Backwards. In his Crusade of the Credulous: A Collection of Articles About Contemporary Creationism and the Effects of That Movement on Public Education. Crusade of the Credulous: A Collection of Articles About Contemporary Creationism and the Effects of That Movement on Public Education. San Francisco: California Academy of Science Press. San Francisco: California Academy of Science Press.

Berenbaum, M. 1994. Transcript of Interview by M. Shermer, April 13.

Berkeley, G. 1713. In The Guardian, The Guardian, June 23. Quoted in H. L. Mencken, ed. 1987. June 23. Quoted in H. L. Mencken, ed. 1987. A New Dictionary of Quotations on Historical Principles from Ancient and Modern Sources. A New Dictionary of Quotations on Historical Principles from Ancient and Modern Sources. New York: Knopf. New York: Knopf.

Berra, T M. 1990. Evolution and the Myth of Creationism: A Basic Guide to the Facts in the Evolution Debate. Evolution and the Myth of Creationism: A Basic Guide to the Facts in the Evolution Debate. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.

Beyerstein, B. L. 1996. Altered States of Consciousness. In The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal, The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal, ed. G. Stein. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus. ed. G. Stein. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus.

Blackmore, S. 1991. Near-Death Experiences: In or Out of the Body? Skeptical Inquirer Skeptical Inquirer 16, no. 1:34-45. 16, no. 1:34-45.

......... 1993. Dying to Live: Near-Death Experiences. Dying to Live: Near-Death Experiences. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus.

......... 1996. Near-Death Experiences. In The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal, The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal, ed. ed.

G. Stein. Buffalo, N.Y: Prometheus.

Blum, S. H., and L. H. Blum. 1974. Do's and Don'ts: An Informal Study of Some Prevailing Superst.i.tions. Psychological Reports Psychological Reports 35:567-571. 35:567-571.

Bowers, K. S. 1976. Hypnosis. Hypnosis. New York: Norton. New York: Norton.

Bowler, P.J. 1989. Evolution: The History of an Idea, Evolution: The History of an Idea, rev. ed. Berkeley: University of California Press. rev. ed. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Boynton, R. S. 1994. Professor Mack, Phone Home. Esquire, Esquire, March, 48. March, 48.

Brand, C. 1981. Personality and Political Att.i.tudes. In Dimensions of Personality; Papers in Honour of H. J. Eysenck, In Dimensions of Personality; Papers in Honour of H. J. Eysenck, ed. R. Lynn. Oxford: Pergamon Press., 7-38, 28. ed. R. Lynn. Oxford: Pergamon Press., 7-38, 28.

Branden, B. 1986. The Pa.s.sion ofAyn Rand. The Pa.s.sion ofAyn Rand. New York: Doubleday. New York: Doubleday.

Branden, N. 1989. Judgment Day: My Years with Ayn Rand. Judgment Day: My Years with Ayn Rand. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Braudel, F. 1981. Civilization and Capitalism: Fifteenth to Eighteenth Century, Civilization and Capitalism: Fifteenth to Eighteenth Century, vol. 1, vol. 1, The Structures of Everyday Life. The Structures of Everyday Life. Trans. S. Reynolds. New York: Harper & Row. Trans. S. Reynolds. New York: Harper & Row.

Briggs, R. 1996. Witches and Witchcraft: The Social and Cultural Context of European Witchcraft. Witches and Witchcraft: The Social and Cultural Context of European Witchcraft. New York: Viking. New York: Viking.

Broszat, M. 1989. Hitler and the Genesis of the "Final Solution": An a.s.sessment of David Irving's Theses. In The n.a.z.i Holocaust, The n.a.z.i Holocaust, vol. 3, vol. 3, The Final Solution, The Final Solution, ed. M. Marrus. Westport, Conn.: Meckler. ed. M. Marrus. Westport, Conn.: Meckler.

Brown, C. 1996. Cosmic Voyage: A Scientific Discovery of Extraterrestrials Visiting Earth. Cosmic Voyage: A Scientific Discovery of Extraterrestrials Visiting Earth. New York: Dutton. New York: Dutton.

......... 1999. Cosmic Explorers: Scientific Remote Viewing, Extraterrestrials, and a Message for Cosmic Explorers: Scientific Remote Viewing, Extraterrestrials, and a Message for Mankind. New York: Dutton. New York: Dutton.

Bnigioni, D. A, and R. G. Poirer. 1979. The Holocaust Revised: A Retrospective a.n.a.lysis of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Extermination Complex. The Holocaust Revised: A Retrospective a.n.a.lysis of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Extermination Complex. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency (available from National Technical Information Service). Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency (available from National Technical Information Service).

Butz, A. 1976. The Hoax of the Twentieth Century. The Hoax of the Twentieth Century. Newport Beach, Calif.: Inst.i.tute for Historical Review. Newport Beach, Calif.: Inst.i.tute for Historical Review.

Bynum, W. E, E. J. Browne, and R. Porter. 1981. Dictionary of the History of Science. Dictionary of the History of Science. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.

Campbell, J. 1949. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.

......... 1988. The Power of Myth. The Power of Myth. New York: Doubleday. New York: Doubleday.

Capra, E 1975. The Tao of Physics: An Exploration of the Parallels Between Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism. The Tao of Physics: An Exploration of the Parallels Between Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism. New York: Bantam. New York: Bantam.

......... 1982. The Turning Point: Science, Society, and the Rising Culture. The Turning Point: Science, Society, and the Rising Culture. New York: Bantam. New York: Bantam.

Carlson, M. 1995. The s.e.x-Crime Capital. Time, Time, November 13. November 13.

Carporael, L. 1976. Ergotism: Satan Loosed in Salem. Science, Science, no. 192:21-26. no. 192:21-26.

Carter, B. 1974. Large Number Coincidences and the Anthropic Principle in Cosmology. In Confrontation of Cosmological Theories with Observational Data, Confrontation of Cosmological Theories with Observational Data, ed. M. S. Longair. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Reidel. ed. M. S. Longair. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Reidel.

Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., and F. Cavalli-Sforza. 1995. The GreatHuman Diaspora: The History of Diversity and Evolution. The GreatHuman Diaspora: The History of Diversity and Evolution. Trans. S. Thorne. Reading, Ma.s.s.: Addison-Wesley. Trans. S. Thorne. Reading, Ma.s.s.: Addison-Wesley.

Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., P. Menozzi, and A. Piazza. 1994. The History and Geography of Human Genes. The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.

Cerminara, G. 1967. Many Mansions: The Edgar Cayce Story on Reincarnation. Many Mansions: The Edgar Cayce Story on Reincarnation. New York: Signet. New York: Signet.

Christenson, C. 1971. Kinsey: A Biography. Kinsey: A Biography. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.

Christophersen, T. 1973. Die Auschwitz Luge. Die Auschwitz Luge. Koelberhagen. Koelberhagen.

Cialdini, R. 1984. Influence: The New Psychology of Modern Persuasion. Influence: The New Psychology of Modern Persuasion. New York: William Morrow. New York: William Morrow.

Cobden, J. 1991. An Expert on "Eyewitness" Testimony Faces a Dilemma in the Demjanjuk Case. Journal of Historical Review Journal of Historical Review 11, no. 2:238-249. 11, no. 2:238-249.

Cohen, I. B. 1985. Revolution in Science. Revolution in Science. Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press. Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press.

Cole, D. 1994. Transcript of Interview by M. Shermer, April 26.

......... 1995. Letter to the Editor. Adelaide Inst.i.tute Newsletter Adelaide Inst.i.tute Newsletter 2, no. 4:3. 2, no. 4:3.

Collins, S., and J. Pinch. 1993. The Golem: What Everyone Should Know About Science. The Golem: What Everyone Should Know About Science. New York: Cambridge University Press. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Cowen, R. 1986. Creationism and the Science Cla.s.sroom. California Science Teachers Journal California Science Teachers Journal 16, no. 5:8-15. 16, no. 5:8-15.

Crews, E, et al. 1995. The Memory Wars: Freud's Legacy in Dispute. The Memory Wars: Freud's Legacy in Dispute. New York: New York Review of Books. New York: New York Review of Books.

Curtius, M. 1996. Man Won't Be Retried in Repressed Memory Case. Los Angeles Times, Los Angeles Times, July 3. July 3.

Darley, J. M., and P. H. Gross. 1983. A Hypothesis-Confirming Bias in Labelling Effects. Journal of Personality andSocialPsychology, Journal of Personality andSocialPsychology, 44:20-3 3. 44:20-3 3.

Darwin, C. 1859. On the Origin of Species by Means ofNatural Selection: Or the On the Origin of Species by Means ofNatural Selection: Or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. A Facsimile of the First Edition. Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 1964. Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 1964.

......... 1871. The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to s.e.x. 2 The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to s.e.x. 2 vols. London: J. vols. London: J.