The Verbalist Part 14

'Know that _we_ have divided In three _our_ kingdom.'

By the fiction of plurality a veil of modesty is thrown over the a.s.sumption of vast superiority over human beings generally. Or, 'we' may be regarded as an official form whereby the speaker personally is magnified or enabled to rise to the dignity of the occasion.

"The editorial 'we' is to be understood on the same principle. An author using 'we' appears as if he were not alone, but sharing with other persons the responsibility of his views.

"This representative position is at its utmost stretch in the practice of using 'we' for human beings generally; as in discoursing on the laws of human nature. The preacher, the novelist, or the philosopher, in dwelling upon the peculiarity of our common const.i.tution, being himself an example of what he is speaking of, a.s.sociates the rest of mankind with him, and speaks collectively by means of 'we.' '_We_ are weak and fallible'; '_we_ are of yesterday'; '_we_ are doomed to dissolution.'

'Here have _we_ no continuing city, but _we_ seek one to come.'

"It is not unfrequent to have in one sentence, or in close proximity, both the editorial and the representative meaning, the effect being ambiguity and confusion. 'Let _us_ [the author] now consider why _we_ [humanity generally] overrate distant good.' In such a case the author should fall back upon the singular for himself--'_I_ will now consider--.' '_We_ [speaker] think _we_ [himself and hearers together]

should come to the conclusion.' Say, either '_I_ think,' or '_you_ would.'

"The following extract from Butler exemplifies a similar confusion: 'Suppose _we_ [representative] are capable of happiness and of misery in degrees equally intense and extreme, yet _we_ [rep.] are capable of the latter for a much longer time, beyond all comparison. _We_ [change of subject to a limited cla.s.s] see men in the tortures of pain--. Such is _our_ [back to representative] make that anything may become the instrument of pain and sorrow to _us_.' The 'we' at the commencement of the second sentence--'_We_ see men in the tortures'--could be advantageously changed to 'you,' or the pa.s.sive construction could be subst.i.tuted; the remaining _we_'s would then be consistently representative.

"From the greater emphasis of singularity, energetic speakers and writers sometimes use 'I' as representative of mankind at large. Thus: 'The current impressions received through the senses are not voluntary in origin. What _I_ see in walking is seen because _I_ have an organ of vision.' The question of general moral obligation is forcibly stated by Paley in the individual form, 'Why am _I_ obliged to keep my word?' It is sometimes well to confine the attention of the hearer or reader to his own relation to the matter under consideration, more especially in difficult or non-popular argument or exposition. The speaker, by using 'I,' does the action himself, or makes himself the example, the hearer being expected to put himself in the same position."--Bain's "Composition Grammar."

p.r.o.nOUNS OF THE SECOND PERSON. "Anomalous usages have sprung up in connection with these p.r.o.nouns. The plural form has almost wholly superseded the singular; a usage more than five centuries old.[24]

"The motive is courtesy. The singling out of one person for address is supposed to be a liberty or an excess of familiarity; and the effect is softened or diluted by the fiction of taking in others. If our address is uncomplimentary, the sting is lessened by the plural form; and if the reverse, the shock to modesty is not so great. This is a refinement that was unknown to the ancient languages. The orators of Greece delighted in the strong, pointed, personal appeal implied in the singular 'thou.' In modern German, 'thou' (_du_) is the address of familiarity and intimacy; while the ordinary p.r.o.noun is the curiously indirect 'they' (_Sie_). On solemn occasions, we may revert to 'thou.' Cato, in his meditative soliloquy on reading Plato's views on the immortality of the soul before killing himself, says: 'Plato, _thou_ reasonest well.' So in the Commandments, 'thou' addresses to each individual an unavoidable appeal: '_Thou_ shall not----.' But our ordinary means of making the personal appeal is, 'you, _sir_,' 'you, _madam_,' 'my _Lord_, you----,' etc.; we reserve 'thou' for the special case of addressing the Deity. The application of the motive of courtesy is here reversed; it would be irreverent to merge this vast personality in a promiscuous a.s.semblage.

"'You' is not unfrequently employed, like 'we,' as a representative p.r.o.noun. The action is represented with great vividness, when the person or persons addressed may be put forward as the performers: 'There is such an echo among the old ruins, and vaults, that if _you_ stamp a little louder than ordinary, _you_ hear the sound repeated'; 'Some practice is required to see these animals in the thick forest, even when _you_ hear them close by _you_.'

"There should not be a mixture of 'thou' and 'you' in the same pa.s.sage.

Thus, Thackeray (Adventures of Philip): 'So, as _thy_ sun rises, friend, over the humble house-tops round about _your_ home, shall _you_ wake many and many a day to duty and labor.' So, Cooper (Water-Witch): '_Thou_ hast both master and mistress? _You_ have told us of the latter, but we would know something of the former. Who is _thy_ master?'

Shakespeare, Scott, and others might also be quoted.

"'Ye' and 'you' were at one time strictly distinguished as different cases; 'ye' was nominative, 'you' objective (dative or accusative). But the Elizabethan dramatists confounded the forms irredeemably; and 'you'

has gradually ousted 'ye' from ordinary use. 'Ye' is restricted to the expression of strong feeling, and in this employment occurs chiefly in the poets."--Bain's "Composition Grammar."

PROOF. This word is much and very improperly used for _evidence_, which is only the medium of _proof_, _proof_ being the effect of _evidence_.

"What _evidence_ have you to offer in _proof_ of the truth of your statement?" See also EVIDENCE.

PROPOSE--PURPOSE. Writers and speakers often fail to discriminate properly between the respective meanings of these two verbs. _Propose_, correctly used, means, to put forward or to offer for _the consideration of others_; hence, _a proposal_ is a scheme or design offered for acceptance or consideration, a proposition. _Purpose_ means, to intend, to design, to resolve; hence, _a purpose_ is an intention, an aim, that which one sets _before one's self_. Examples: "What do you _purpose_ doing in the matter?" "What do you _propose_ that we shall do in the matter?" "I will do" means "I _purpose_ doing, or to do." "I _purpose_ to write a history of England from the accession of King James the Second down to a time which is within the memory of men still living."--Macaulay. It will be observed that Macaulay says, "I purpose _to write_" and not, "I purpose _writing_," using the verb in the infinitive rather than in the participial form. "On which he _purposed_ to mount one of his little guns." See INFINITIVE.

PROPOSITION. This word is often used when _proposal_ would be better, for the reason that _proposal_ has but one meaning, and is shorter by one syllable. "He demonstrated the _proposition_ of Euclid, and rejected the _proposal_ of his friend."

PROSAIST. Dr. Hall is of opinion that this is a word we shall do well to encourage. It is used by good writers.

PROVEN. This form for the past participle of the verb _to prove_ is said to be a Scotticism. It is not used by careful writers and speakers. The correct form is _proved_.

PROVIDING. The present participle of the verb _to provide_ is sometimes vulgarly used for the conjunction _provided_, as in this sentence from the "London Queen": "Society may be congratulated, ... _providing_ that," etc.

PROVOKE. See AGGRAVATE.

PUNCTUATION. The importance of punctuation can not be overestimated; it not only helps to make plain the meaning of what one writes, but it may prevent one's being misconstrued. Though no two writers could be found who punctuate just alike, still in the main those who pay attention to the art put in their stops in essentially the same manner. The difference that punctuation may make in the meaning of language is well ill.u.s.trated by the following anecdote:

At Ramessa there lived a benevolent and hospitable prior, who caused these lines to be painted over his door:

"Be open evermore, O thou my door!

To none be shut--to honest or to poor!"

In time the good prior was succeeded by a man as selfish as his predecessor was generous. The lines over the door of the priory were allowed to remain; one stop, however, was altered, which made them read thus:

"Be open evermore, O thou my door!

To none--be shut to honest or to poor!"

He punctuates best who makes his punctuation contribute most to the clear expression of his thought; and that construction is best that has least need of being punctuated.

THE COMMA.--The chief difference in the punctuation of different writers is usually in their use of the comma, in regard to which there is a good deal of lat.i.tude; much is left to individual taste. Nowadays the best practice uses it sparingly. An idea of the extent to which opinions differ with regard to the use of the comma may be formed from the following excerpt from a paper prepared for private use:

"In the following examples, gathered from various sources--chiefly from standard books--the superfluous commas are inclosed in parentheses:

"1. 'It remains(,) perhaps(,) to be said(,) that, if any lesson at all(,) as to these delicate matters(,) is needed(,) in this period, it is not so much a lesson,' etc. 2. 'The obedience is not due to the power of a right authority, but to the spirit of fear, and(,) therefore(,) is(,) in reality(,) no obedience at all.' 3. 'The patriot disturbances in Canada ... awakened deep interest among the people of the United States(,) who lived adjacent to the frontier.' 4.

'Observers(,) who have recently investigated this point(,) do not all agree,' etc. 5. 'The wind did(,) in an instant(,) what man and steam together had failed to do in hours.' 6. 'All the cabin pa.s.sengers(,) situated beyond the center of the boat(,) were saved.' 7. 'No other writer has depicted(,) with so much art or so much accuracy(,) the habits, the manners,' etc. 8. 'If it shall give satisfaction to those who have(,) in any way(,) befriended it, the author will feel,' etc.

9. 'Formed(,) or consisting of(,) clay.' 10. 'The subject [witchcraft]

grew interesting; and(,) to examine Sarah Cloyce and Elizabeth Proctor, the deputy-governor(,) and five other magistrates(,) went to Salem.' 11. 'The Lusitanians(,) who had not left their home(,) rose as a man,' etc. 12. 'Vague reports ... had preceded him to Washington, and his Mississippi friends(,) who chanced to be at the capital(,) were not backward to make their boast of him.' 13. 'Our faith has acquired a new vigor(,) and a clearer vision.' 14. 'In 1819(,) he removed to Cambridge.' 15. 'Dore was born at Strasburg(,) in 1832, and labors,' etc. 16. 'We should never apply dry compresses, charpie, or wadding(,) to the wound.' 17. '--to stand idle, to look, act, or think(,) in a leisurely way.' 18. '--portraits taken from the farmers, schoolmasters, and peasantry(,) of the neighborhood.' 19. '--gladly welcomed painters of Flanders, Holland, and Spain(,) to their sh.o.r.es.'

"In all these cases, the clauses between or following the inclosed commas are so closely connected grammatically with the immediately preceding words or phrases, that they should be read without a perceptible pause, or with only a slight one for breath, without change of voice. Some of the commas would grossly pervert the meaning if strictly construed. Thus, from No. 3 it would appear that the people of the United States in general lived adjacent to the frontier; from No. 4, that all observers have recently investigated the point in question; from No. 6, that all the cabin pa.s.sengers were so situated that they were saved, whereas it is meant that only a certain small proportion of them were saved; from No. 10 (Bancroft), that somebody whose name is accidentally omitted went to Salem 'to examine Sarah Cloyce and Elizabeth Proctor, the deputy-governor, and five other magistrates'; from No. 11, that none of the Lusitanians had left their home, whereas it was the slaughter by the Romans of a great number of them who _had_ left their home that caused the rising.

"Commas are frequently omitted, and in certain positions very generally, where the sense and correct reading require a pause. In the following examples, such commas, omitted in the works from which they were taken, are inclosed in brackets:

"1. 'The modes of thought[,] and the types of character which those modes produce[,] are essentially and universally transformed.' 2.

'Taken by itself[,] this doctrine could have no effect whatever; indeed[,] it would amount to nothing but a verbal proposition.' 3.

'Far below[,] the little stream of the Oder foamed over the rocks.' 4.

'When the day returned[,] the professor, the artist[,] and I rowed to within a hundred yards of the sh.o.r.e.' 5. 'Proceeding into the interior of India[,] they pa.s.sed through Belgaum.' 6. 'If Loring is defeated in the Sixth District[,] it can be borne.'

"In No. 3, the reader naturally enunciates 'the little stream of the Oder' as in the objective case after 'below'; but there he comes to a predicate which compels him to go back and read differently. In No. 4, it appears that 'the day returned the professor,' and then 'the artist and I rowed,' etc."

All clauses should generally be isolated by commas; where, however, the connection is very close or the clause is very short, no point may be necessary. "But his pride is greater than his ignorance, and what he wants in knowledge he supplies by sufficiency." "A man of polite imagination can converse with a picture, and find an agreeable companion in a statue." "Though he slay me, yet will I trust him."

"The prince, his father being dead, succeeded." "To confess the truth, I was much at fault." "As the heart panteth after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul after thee." "Where the bee sucks, there suck I." "His father dying, he succeeded to the estate." "The little that is known, and the circ.u.mstance that little is known, must be considered as honorable to him."

The comma is used before and after a phrase when coordinating and not restrictive. "The jury, having retired for half an hour, brought in a verdict." "The stranger, unwilling to obtrude himself on our notice, left in the morning." "Rome, the city of the Emperors, became the city of the Popes." "His stories, which made everybody laugh, were often made to order." "He did not come, which I greatly regret." "The younger, who was yet a boy, had nothing striking in his appearance."

"They pa.s.sed the cup to the stranger, who drank heartily." "Peace at any price, which these orators seem to advocate, means war at any cost." "Sailors, who are generally superst.i.tious, say it is unlucky to embark on Friday."

Adverbs and short phrases, _when they break the connection_, should be between commas. Some of the most common words and phrases so used are the following: Also, too, there, indeed, perhaps, surely, moreover, likewise, however, finally, namely, therefore, apparently, meanwhile, consequently, unquestionably, accordingly, notwithstanding, in truth, in fact, in short, in general, in reality, no doubt, of course, as it were, at all events, to be brief, to be sure, now and then, on the contrary, in a word, by chance, in that case, in the mean time, for the most part. "History, in a word, is replete with moral lessons."

"As an orator, however, he was not great." "There is, remember, a limit at which forbearance ceases to be a virtue." "Our civilization, therefore, is not an unmixed good." "This, I grant you, is not of great importance."

If, however, the adverb does not break the connection, but readily coalesces with the rest of the sentence, the commas are omitted.

"Morning will come at last, however dark the night may be." "We then proceeded on our way." "Our civilization is therefore not an unmixed good." "Patience, I say; your mind perhaps may change."

Adverbial phrases and clauses beginning a sentence are set off by commas. "In truth, I could not tell." "To sum up, the matter is this."

"Everything being ready, they set out." "By looking a little deeper, the reason will be found." "Finally, let me sum up the argument." "If the premises were admitted, I should deny the conclusion." "Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also."

Words used in apposition should be isolated by commas. "Newton, the great mathematician, was very modest." "And he, their prince, shall rank among my peers." In such sentences, however, as, "The mathematician Newton was very modest," and "The Emperor Napoleon was a great soldier," commas are not used.

The name or designation of a person addressed is isolated by commas.

"It touches you, my lord, as well as me." "John, come here." "Mr.

President, my object is peace." "Tell me, boy, where do you live?"

"Yes, sir, I will do as you say." "Mr. Brown, what is your number?"