The Thousand and One Nights Volume I Part 2

The princ.i.p.al Ritual and Moral Laws are on the following subjects, of which the first four are the most important.

1. Prayer (e?-?alah, commonly p.r.o.nounced e?-?alah), including preparatory purifications. There are partial or total washings to be performed on particular occasions which need not be mentioned. The ablution which is more especially preparatory to prayer (and which is called wu?oo) consists in washing the hands, mouth, nostrils, face, arms (as high as the elbow, the right first), each three times; and then the upper part of the head, the beard, ears, neck, and feet, each once. This is done with running water, or from a very large tank, or from a lake, or the sea.--Prayers are required to be performed five times in the course of every day; between daybreak and sunrise, between noon and the 'a?r (which latter period is about mid-time between noon and nightfall), between the 'a?r and sunset, between sunset and the 'eshe (or the period when the darkness of night commences), and at, or after, the 'eshe. The commencement of each of these periods is announced by a chant (called adan), repeated by a crier (mueddin) from the mad'neh, or menaret, of each mosque; and it is more meritorious to commence the prayer then than at a later time. On each of these occasions, the Muslim has to perform certain prayers held to be ordained by G.o.d, and others ordained by the Prophet; each kind consisting of two, three, or four "rek'ahs;" which term signifies the repet.i.tion of a set form of words, chiefly from the ?ur-an, and e.j.a.c.u.l.a.t.i.o.ns of "G.o.d is most Great!" &c., accompanied by particular postures; part of the words being repeated in an erect posture; part, sitting; and part, in other postures: an inclination of the head and body, followed by two prostrations, distinguishing each rek'ah. These prayers may in some cases be abridged, and in others entirely omitted. Other prayers must be performed on particular occasions. 1. On Friday, the Mohammadan Sabbath. These are congregational prayers, and are similar to those of other days, with additional prayers and exhortations by a minister, who is called Imam, or Kha?eeb. 2. On two grand annual festivals. 3. On the nights of Rama?an, the month of abstinence. 4. On the occasion of an eclipse of the sun or moon. 5. For rain. 6. Previously to the commencement of battle. 7. In pilgrimage. 8. At funerals.

2. Alms-giving. An alms, called "zekah," commonly p.r.o.nounced "zekah," is required by law to be given annually, to the poor, of camels, oxen (bulls and cows), and buffaloes, sheep and goats, horses and mules and a.s.ses, and gold and silver (whether in money or in vessels, ornaments, &c.), provided the property be of a certain amount, as five camels, thirty oxen, forty sheep, five horses, two hundred dirhems, or twenty deenars. The proportion is generally one-fortieth, which is to be paid in kind, or in money, or other equivalent.

3. Fasting (e?-?iyam). The Muslim must abstain from eating and drinking, and from every indulgence of the senses, every day during the month of Rama?an, from the first appearance of daybreak until sunset, unless physically incapacitated.--On the first day of the following month, a festival, called the Minor Festival, is observed with public prayer, and with general rejoicing, which continues three days.

4. Pilgrimage (el-?ajj). It is inc.u.mbent on the Muslim, if able, to perform, at least once in his life, the pilgrimage to Mekkeh and Mount 'Arafat. The princ.i.p.al ceremonies of the pilgrimage are completed on the 9th of the month of Zu-l-?ejjeh: on the following day, which is the first of the Great Festival, on the return from 'Arafat to Mekkeh, the pilgrims who are able to do so perform a sacrifice, and every other Muslim who can is required to do the same: part of the meat of the victim he should eat, and the rest he should give to the poor. This festival is observed otherwise in a similar manner to the minor one, above mentioned; and lasts three or four days.

The less important ritual and moral laws may here be briefly mentioned in a single paragraph.--One of these is circ.u.mcision, which is not absolutely obligatory.--The distinctions of clean and unclean meats are nearly the same in the Mohammedan as in the Mosaic code. Camels' flesh is an exception; being lawful to the Muslim. Swine's flesh, and blood, are especially condemned; and a particular mode of slaughtering animals for food is enjoined, accompanied by the repet.i.tion of the name of G.o.d.--Wine and all inebriating liquors are strictly forbidden.--So also are gaming and usury.--Music is condemned; but most Muslims take great delight in hearing it.--Images and pictures representing living creatures are contrary to law.--Charity, probity in all transactions, veracity (excepting in a few cases), and modesty, are virtues indispensable.--Cleanliness in person, and decent attire, are particularly required. Clothes of silk, and ornaments of gold or silver, are forbidden to men, but allowed to women: this precept, however, is often disregarded.--Utensils of gold and silver are also condemned: yet they are used by many Muslims.--The manners of Muslims in society are subject to particular laws or rules, with respect to salutations, &c.

Of the Civil Laws, the following notices will at present suffice.--A man may have four wives at the same time, and, according to common opinion, as many concubine slaves as he pleases.--He may divorce a wife twice, and each time take her back again; but if he divorce her a third time, or by a triple sentence, he cannot make her his wife again unless by her own consent, and by a new contract, and after another man has consummated a marriage with her, and divorced her.--The children by a wife and those by a concubine slave inherit equally, if the latter be acknowledged by the father. Sons inherit equally: so also do daughters; but the share of a daughter is half that of a son. One-eighth is the share of the wife or wives of the deceased if he have left issue, and one-fourth if he have left no issue. A husband inherits one-fourth of his wife's property if she have left issue, and one-half if she have left no issue. The debts and legacies of the deceased must be first paid. A man may leave one-third of his property in any way he pleases.--When a concubine slave has borne a child to her master, she becomes ent.i.tled to freedom on his death.--There are particular laws relating to commerce. Usury and monopoly are especially condemned.

Of the Criminal Laws, a few only need here be mentioned. Murder is punishable by death, or by a fine to be paid to the family of the deceased, if they prefer it.--Theft, if the property stolen amount to a quarter of a deenar, is to be punished by cutting off the right hand, except under certain circ.u.mstances.--Adultery, if attested by four eye-witnesses, is punishable by death (stoning): fornication, by a hundred stripes, and banishment for a year.--Drunkenness is punished with eighty stripes.--Apostasy, persevered in, by death.

NOTE 2.--_On the Arabian System of Cosmography._ The words translated "as a bed" would be literally rendered "and the bed;" but the signification is that which I have expressed. (See the ?ur-an, ch.

lxxviii. v. 6; and, with respect to what is before said of the heavens, idem, ch. xiii. v. 2.[13]) These, and the preceding words, commencing with "the Beneficent King," I have introduced (in the place of "the Lord of all creatures") from the Calcutta edition of the first two hundred nights, as affording me an opportunity to explain here the Arabian system of Cosmography, with which the reader of this work cannot be too early acquainted.

When we call to mind how far the Arabs surpa.s.sed their great master, Aristotle, in natural and experimental philosophy, and remember that their brilliant discoveries const.i.tuted an important link between those of the ill.u.s.trious Greek and of our equally ill.u.s.trious countryman, Roger Bacon, their popular system of cosmography becomes an interesting subject for our consideration.

According to the common opinion of the Arabs (an opinion sanctioned by the ?ur-an, and by a.s.sertions of their Prophet, which almost all Muslims take in their literal sense), there are Seven Heavens, one above another, and Seven Earths, one beneath another; the earth which we inhabit being the highest of the latter, and next below the lowest heaven. The upper surface of each heaven, and that of each earth, are believed to be nearly plane, and are generally supposed to be circular; and are said to be five hundred years' journey in width. This is also said to be the measure of the depth or thickness of each heaven and each earth, and of the distance between each heaven or earth and that next above or below it. Thus is explained a pa.s.sage of the ?ur-an, (ch. lxv.

last verse), in which it is said, that G.o.d hath created seven heavens and as many earths, or stories of the earth, in accordance with traditions from the Prophet.[14]--This notion of the seven heavens appears to have been taken from the "seven spheres;" the first of which is that of the Moon; the second, of Mercury; the third, of Venus; the fourth, of the Sun; the fifth, of Mars; the sixth, of Jupiter; and the seventh, of Saturn; each of which orbs was supposed to revolve round the earth in its proper sphere. So also the idea of the seven earths seems to have been taken from the division of the earth into seven climates; a division which has been adopted by several Arab geographers.--But to return to the opinions of the religious and the vulgar.

Traditions differ respecting the _fabric_ of the seven heavens. In the most credible account, according to a celebrated historian, the first is described as formed of emerald; the second, of white silver; the third, of large white pearls; the fourth, of ruby; the fifth, of red gold; the sixth, of yellow jacinth; and the seventh, of shining light.[15]

Some a.s.sert Paradise to be in the seventh heaven; and, indeed, I have found this to be the general opinion of my Muslim friends: but the author above quoted proceeds to describe, next above the seventh heaven, seven seas of light; then, an undefined number of veils, or separations, of different substances, seven of each kind; and then, Paradise, which consists of seven stages, one above another; the first (Dar el-Jelal, or the Mansion of Glory), of white pearls; the second (Dar es-Selam, or the Mansion of Peace), of ruby; the third (Jennet el-Ma-wa, or the Garden of Rest), of green chrysolite; the fourth (Jennet el-Khuld, or the Garden of Eternity), of green[16] coral; the fifth (Jennet en-Na'eem, or the Garden of Delight), of white silver; the sixth (Jennet el-Firdos, or the Garden of Paradise), of red gold; and the seventh (Jennet 'Adn, or the Garden of Perpetual Abode, or--of Eden), of large pearls; this overlooking all the former, and canopied by the Throne, or rather Empyrean, of the Compa.s.sionate ('Arsh Er-Ra?man), _i. e._ of G.o.d.--These several regions of Paradise are described in some traditions as forming so many degrees, or stages, ascended by steps.

Though the opinion before mentioned respecting the form of the earth which we inhabit is that generally maintained by the Arabs, there have been, and still are, many philosophical men among this people who have argued that it is a globe, because, as El-?azweenee says, an eclipse of the moon has been observed to happen at different hours of the night in eastern and western countries. Thus we find Ptolemy's measurement of the earth quoted and explained by Ibn-El-Wardee:--The circ.u.mference of the earth is 24,000 miles, or 8,000 leagues; the league being three miles; the mile, 3,000 royal cubits; the cubit, three spans; the span, twelve digits; the digit, five barley-corns placed side by side; and the width of the barley-corn, six mule's-hairs. El-Ma?reezee also, among the more intelligent Arabs, describes[17] the globular form of the earth, and its arctic and antarctic regions, with their day of six months, and night of six months, and their frozen waters, &c.

For ourselves, however, it is necessary that we retain in our minds the opinions first stated, with regard to the form and dimensions of our earth; agreeing with those Muslims who allow not philosophy to trench upon revelation or sacred traditions. It is written, say they, that G.o.d hath "spread out the earth,"[18] "as a bed,"[19] and "as a carpet;"[20]

and what is round or globular cannot be said to be spread out, nor compared to a bed, or a carpet. It is therefore decided to be an almost plane expanse. The continents and islands of the earth are believed by the Arabs (as they were by the Greeks in the age of Homer and Hesiod) to be surrounded by "the Circ.u.mambient Ocean," "el-Ba?r el-Mo?ee?;" and this ocean is described as bounded by a chain of mountains called Kaf, which encircle the whole as a ring, and confine and strengthen the entire fabric. With respect to the extent of the earth, our faith must at least admit the a.s.sertion of the Prophet, that its width (as well as its depth or thickness) is equal to five hundred years' journey: allotting the s.p.a.ce of two hundred to the sea, two hundred to uninhabited desert, eighty to the country of Yajooj and Majooj (or Gog and Magog), and the rest to the remaining creatures:[21] nay, vast as these limits are, we must rather extend than contract them, unless we suppose some of the heroes of this work to travel by circuitous routes.

Another tradition will suit us better, wherein it is said, that the inhabited portion of the earth is, with respect to the rest, as a tent in the midst of a desert.[22] But even according to the former a.s.sertion, it will be remarked, that the countries now commonly known to the Arabs (from the western extremity of Africa to the eastern limits of India, and from the southern confines of Abyssinia to those of Russia,) occupy a comparatively insignificant portion of this expanse. They are situated in the middle; Mekkeh, according to some,--or Jerusalem, according to others,--being exactly in the centre. Adjacent to the tract occupied by these countries are other lands and seas, partially known to the Arabs. On the north-west, with respect to the central point, lies the country of the Christians, or Franks, comprising the princ.i.p.al European nations; on the north, the country of Yajooj and Majooj, before mentioned, occupying, in the maps of the Arabs, large tracts of Asia and Europe; on the north-east, central Asia; on the east, E?-?een (or China); on the south-east, the sea, or seas, of El-Hind (or India), and Ez-Zinj (or Southern Ethiopia), the waves of which (or of the former of which) mingle with those of the sea of E?-?een, beyond; on the south, the country of the Zinj; on the south-west, the country of the Soodan, or Blacks: on the west is a portion of the Circ.u.mambient Ocean, which surrounds all the countries and seas already mentioned, as well as immense unknown regions adjoining the former, and innumerable islands interspersed in the latter. These _terrae incognitae_ are the scenes of some of the greatest wonders described in the present work; and are mostly peopled with Jinn, or Genii. On the Mo?ee?, or Circ.u.mambient Ocean, is the 'Arsh Iblees, or Throne of Iblees: in a map accompanying my copy of the work of Ibn-El-Wardee, a large yellow tract is marked with this name, adjoining Southern Africa. The western portion of the Mo?ee? is often called "the Sea of Darkness" (Ba?r e?-?ulumat, or,--e?-?ulmeh). Under this name (and the synonymous appellation of el-Ba?r el-Mu?lim) the Atlantic Ocean is described by the author just mentioned; though, in the introduction to his work, he says that the Sea of Darkness surrounds the Mo?ee?. The former may be considered either as the western or the more remote portion of the latter. In the dark regions (E?-?ulumat, from which, perhaps, the above-mentioned portion of the Mo?ee? takes its name),[23] in the south-west quarter of the earth, according to the same author, is the Fountain of Life, of which El-Khi?r drank, and by virtue of which he still lives, and will live till the day of judgment. This mysterious person, whom the vulgar and some others regard as a prophet, and identify with Ilyas (Elias, or Elijah), and whom some confound with St. George, was, according to the more approved opinion of the learned, a just man, or saint, the Wezeer and counsellor of the first Zu-l-?arneyn, who was a universal conqueror, but an equally doubtful personage, contemporary with the patriarch Ibraheem, or Abraham. El-Khi?r is said to appear frequently to Muslims in perplexity, and to be generally clad in green garments; whence, according to some, his name. The Prophet Ilyas (or Elias) is also related to have drunk of the Fountain of Life. During the day-time, it is said, El-Khi?r wanders upon the seas, and directs voyagers who go astray; while Ilyas perambulates the mountains or deserts, and directs persons who chance to be led astray by the Ghools:[24] but at night, they meet together, and guard the rampart of Yajooj and Majooj,[25] to prevent these people from making irruptions upon their neighbours. Both, however, are generally believed by the modern Muslims to a.s.sist pious persons in distress in various circ.u.mstances, whether travelling by land or by water.--The mountains of ?af, which bound the Circ.u.mambient Ocean, and form a circular barrier round the whole of our earth, are described by interpreters of the ?ur-an as composed of green chrysolite, like the green tint of the sky.[26] It is the colour of these mountains, said the Prophet, that imparts a greenish hue to the sky.[27] It is said, in a tradition, that beyond these mountains are other countries; one of gold, seventy of silver, and seven of musk, all inhabited by angels, and each country ten thousand years' journey in length, and the same in breadth.[28] Some say that beyond it are creatures unknown to any but G.o.d:[29] but the general opinion is, that the mountains of ?af terminate our earth, and that no one knows what is beyond them. They are the chief abode of the Jinn, or Genii.--Such is a concise account of the earth which we inhabit, according to the notions of the Arabs.

We must now describe what is _beneath_ our earth.--It has already been said, that this is the first, or highest, of seven earths, which are all of equal width and thickness, and at equal distances apart. Each of these earths has occupants. The occupants of the first are men, genii, brutes, &c.: the second is occupied by the suffocating wind that destroyed the infidel tribe of 'ad: the third, by the stones of Jahennem (or h.e.l.l), mentioned in the ?ur-an, in these words, "the fuel of which is men and stones:"[30] the fourth, by the sulphur of Jahennem: the fifth, by its serpents: the sixth, by its scorpions, in colour and size like black mules, and with tails like spears: the seventh, by Iblees and his troops.[31] Whether these several earths are believed to be connected with each other by any means, and if so, how, we are not expressly informed; but, that they are supposed to be so is evident.

With respect to our earth in particular, as some think, it is said that it is supported by a rock, with which the mountains of ?af communicate by means of veins or roots; and that, when G.o.d desires to effect an earthquake at a certain place, He commands the mountain [or rock] to agitate the vein that is connected with that place.[32]--But there is another account, describing our earth as upheld by certain successive supports of inconceivable magnitude, which are under the seventh earth; leaving us to infer that the seven earths are in some manner connected together. This account, as inserted in the work of one of the writers above quoted, is as follows:--The earth [under which appellation are here understood the seven earths] was, it is said, originally unstable; "therefore G.o.d created an angel of immense size and of the utmost strength, and ordered him to go beneath it, [_i.e._ beneath the lowest earth,] and place it on his shoulders; and his hands extended beyond the east and west, and grasped the extremities of the earth [or, as related in Ibn-El-Wardee, the seven earths], and held it [or them]. But there was no support for his feet: so G.o.d created a rock of ruby, in which were seven thousand perforations; and from each of these perforations issued a sea, the size of which none knoweth but G.o.d, whose name be exalted: then He ordered this rock to stand under the feet of the angel.

But there was no support for the rock: wherefore G.o.d created a huge bull, with four thousand eyes, and the same number of ears, noses, mouths, tongues, and feet; between every two of which was a distance of five hundred years' journey: and G.o.d, whose name be exalted, ordered this bull to go beneath the rock: and he bore it on his back and his horns. The name of this bull is Kuyoota.[33] But there was no support for the bull: therefore G.o.d, whose name be exalted, created an enormous fish, that no one could look upon, on account of its vast size, and the flashing of its eyes and their greatness; for it is said that if all the seas were placed in one of its nostrils, they would appear like a grain of mustard-seed in the midst of a desert: and G.o.d, whose name be exalted, commanded the fish to be a support to the feet of the bull.[34]

The name of this fish in Bahamoot. He placed, as its support, water; and under the water, darkness: and the knowledge of mankind fails as to what is under the darkness."[35]--Another opinion is, that the [seventh]

earth is upon water; the water, upon the rock; the rock, on the back of the bull; the bull, on a bed of sand; the sand, on the fish; the fish, upon a still, suffocating wind; the wind, on a veil of darkness; the darkness, on a mist; and what is beneath the mist is unknown.[36]

It is generally believed, that, under the lowest earth, and beneath seas of darkness of which the number is unknown, is h.e.l.l, which consists of seven stages, one beneath another. The first of these, according to the general opinion, is destined for the reception of wicked Mohammadans; the second, for the Christians; the third, for the Jews; the fourth, for the Sabians; the fifth, for the Magians; the sixth, for the Idolaters; the seventh, by general consent, for the Hypocrites. "Jahennem" is the general name for h.e.l.l, and the particular name for its first stage. The situation of h.e.l.l has been a subject of dispute; some place it in the seventh earth; and some have doubted whether it be above or below the earth which _we_ inhabit.

At the consummation of all things, G.o.d, we are told, will take the whole earth in his [left] hand, and the heavens will be rolled together in his right hand;[37] and the earth will be changed into another earth; and the heavens [into other heavens];[38] and h.e.l.l will be brought nigh [to the tribunal of G.o.d].[39]

NOTE 3. The phrase "G.o.d is all-knowing," or "surpa.s.sing in knowledge,"

or, as some say, simply "knowing," is generally used by an Arab writer when he relates anything for the truth of which he cannot vouch; and Muslims often use it in conversation, in similar cases, unless when they are uttering intentional falsehoods, which most of them are in the frequent habit of doing. It is worthy of remark, that, though falsehood is permitted by their religion in some cases, their doctors of religion and law generally condemn all works of fiction (even though designed to convey useful instruction), excepting mere fables, or apologues of a high cla.s.s.

NOTE 4. In my usual standard-copy of the original work, as also in that from which the old translation was made, and in the edition of Breslau, this prince is called a king of the dynasty of Sasan; but as he is not so designated in the Calcutta edition of the first two hundred nights, I have here omitted, in my translation, what would render the whole work full of anachronisms.

NOTE 5. Shahriyar is a Persian word, signifying "Friend of the City."

The name of the elder King is thus written in the Calcutta edition above mentioned: in the edition of Cairo (which I generally follow) it is written Shahrabaz, by errors in diacritical marks; and in that of Breslau, Shahraban.

NOTE 6. This name, Shah-Zeman, is a compound of Persian and Arabic, and signifies "King of the Age." By the omission of a diacritical point, in the Cairo edition, it is written Shah-Reman.

NOTE 7. In the Calcutta edition before mentioned, the elder brother is called King of Samar?and; and the younger, King of China.

NOTE 8.--_On the t.i.tle and office of_ Wezeer. Wezeer is an Arabic word, and is p.r.o.nounced by the Arabs as I have written it; but the Turks and Persians p.r.o.nounce the first letter V. There are three opinions respecting the etymology of this word. Some derive it from "wizr" (a burden); because the Wezeer bears the burdens of the King: others, from "wezer" (a refuge); because the King has recourse to the counsels of his Wezeer, and his knowledge and prudence: others, again, from "azr" (back, or strength); because the King is strengthened by his Wezeer as the human frame is by the back.[40]

The proper and chief duties of a Wezeer are explained by the above, and by a saying of the Prophet:--"Whosoever is in authority over Muslims, if G.o.d would prosper him, He giveth him a virtuous Wezeer, who, when he forgetteth his duty, remindeth him, and when he remembereth, a.s.sisteth him: but if He would do otherwise, He giveth him an evil Wezeer, who, when he forgetteth, doth not remind him, and when he remembereth, doth not a.s.sist him."[41]

The post of Wezeer was the highest that was held by an officer of the pen; and the person who occupied it was properly the next to the Sul?an: but the Turkish Sul?ans of Egypt made the office of Nab (or Viceroy) to have the pre-eminence. Under them, the post of Wezeer was sometimes occupied by an officer of the sword, and sometimes by an officer of the pen; and, in both cases, the Wezeer was also called "the ?a?eb." The Sul?an Bar?oo? so degraded this office, by intrusting its most important functions to other ministers, that the Wezeer became, in reality, the King's purveyor, and little else; receiving the indirect taxes, and employing them in the purchase of provisions for the royal kitchen.[42]

It is even said, that he was usually chosen, by the Turkish Sul?ans of Egypt, from among the Copts (or Christian Egyptians); because the administration of the taxes had, from time immemorial, been committed to persons of that race.[43] This, it would seem, was the case about the time of the Sul?an Bar?oo?. But in the present work, we are to understand the office of Wezeer as being what it was in earlier times,--that of Prime Minister; though we are not hence to infer that the editions of the Tales of a Thousand and One Nights known to us were written at a period anterior to that of the Memlook Sul?ans of Egypt and Syria; for, in the time of these monarchs, the degradation of the office was commonly known to be a recent innovation, and it may have been of no very long continuance.

NOTE 9. The paragraph to which this note relates is from the Calcutta edition of the first two hundred Nights.

NOTE 10.--_On Presents._ The custom of giving presents on the occasion of paying a visit, or previously, which is of such high antiquity as to be mentioned in the book of Genesis,[44] has continued to prevail in the East to this day. Presents of provisions of some kind, wax candles, &c., are sent to a person about to celebrate any festivity, by those who are to be his guests: but after paying a mere visit of ceremony, and on some other occasions, only money is commonly given to the servants of the person visited. In either case, the latter is expected to return the compliment on a similar occasion by presents of equal value. To reject a present generally gives great offence; being regarded as an insult to him who has offered it. When a person arrives from a foreign country, he generally brings some articles of the produce or merchandise of that country as presents to his friends. Thus, pilgrims returning from the holy places bring water of Zemzem, dust from the Prophet's tomb, &c., for this purpose.--Horses, and male and female slaves, are seldom given but by kings or great men. Of the condition of slaves in Mohammadan countries, an account will be given hereafter.

NOTE 11.--_On the Letters of Muslims._ The letters of Muslims are distinguished by several peculiarities dictated by the rules of politeness. The paper is thick, white, and highly polished: sometimes it is ornamented with flowers of gold; and the edges are always cut straight with scissors. The upper half is generally left blank: and the writing never occupies any portion of the second side. A notion of the usual style of letters will be conveyed by several examples in this work. The name of the person to whom the letter is addressed, when the writer is an inferior or an equal, and even in some other cases, commonly occurs in the first sentence, preceded by several t.i.tles of honour; and is often written a little above the line to which it apertains; the s.p.a.ce beneath it in that line being left blank: sometimes it is written in letters of gold, or red ink. A king, writing to a subject, or a great man to a dependent, usually places his name and seal at the head of his letter. The seal is the impression of a signet (generally a ring, worn on the little finger of the right hand), upon which is engraved the name of the person, commonly accompanied by the words "His [_i.e._ G.o.d's] servant," or some other words expressive of trust in G.o.d, &c. Its impression is considered more valid than the sign-manual, and is indispensable to give authenticity to the letter. It is made by dabbing some ink upon the surface of the signet, and pressing this upon the paper: the place which is to be stamped being first moistened, by touching the tongue with a finger of the right hand, and then gently rubbing the part with that finger. A person writing to a superior, or to an equal, or even an inferior to whom he wishes to shew respect, signs his name at the bottom of his letter, next the left side or corner, and places the seal immediately to the right of this: but if he particularly desire to testify his humility, he places it beneath his name, or even partly over the lower edge of the paper, which consequently does not receive the whole of the impression. The letter is generally folded twice, in the direction of the writing, and enclosed in a cover of paper, upon which is written the address, in some such form as this:--"It shall arrive, if it be the will of G.o.d, whose name be exalted, at such a place, and be delivered into the hand of our honoured friend, &c., such a one, whom G.o.d preserve." Sometimes it is placed in a small bag, or purse, of silk embroidered with gold.

NOTE 12. The custom of sending forth a deputation to meet and welcome an approaching amba.s.sador, or other great man, is still observed in Eastern countries; and the rank of the persons thus employed conveys to him some intimation of the manner in which he is to be received at the court: he therefore looks forward to this ceremony with a degree of anxiety. A humorous ill.u.s.tration of its importance in the eye of an Oriental amba.s.sador, is given in "The Adventures of Hajji Baba in England."

NOTE 13.--_On Hospitality._ The hospitable custom here mentioned is observed by Muslims in compliance with a precept of their Prophet.

"Whoever," said he, "believes in G.o.d and the day of resurrection must respect his guest; and the time of being kind to him is one day and one night; and the period of entertaining him is three days; and after that, if he does it longer, he benefits him more; but it is not right for a guest to stay in the house of the host so long as to incommode him." He even allowed the "right of a guest" to be taken by force from such as would not offer it.[45] The following observations, respecting the treatment of guests by the Bedawees, present an interesting commentary upon the former precept, and upon our text:--"Strangers who have not any friend or acquaintance in the camp, alight at the first tent that presents itself: whether the owner be at home or not, the wife or daughter immediately spreads a carpet, and prepares breakfast or dinner.

If the stranger's business requires a protracted stay, as, for instance, if he wishes to cross the Desert under the protection of the tribe, the host, after a lapse of three days and four hours from the time of his arrival, asks whether he means to honour him any longer with his company. If the stranger declares his intention of prolonging his visit, it is expected that he should a.s.sist his host in domestic matters, fetching water, milking the camel, feeding the horse, &c. Should he even decline this, he may remain; but will be censured by all the Arabs of the camp: he may, however, go to some other tent of the nezel [or encampment], and declare himself there a guest. Thus, every third or fourth day he may change hosts, until his business is finished, or he has reached his place of destination."[46]

NOTE 14.--_On different modes of Obeisance._ Various different modes of obeisance are practised by the Muslims. Among these, the following are the more common or more remarkable: they differ in the degree of respect that they indicate, nearly in the order in which I shall mention them; the last being the most respectful:--1. Placing the right hand upon the breast.--2. Touching the lips and the forehead or turban (or the forehead or turban only) with the right hand.--3. Doing the same, but slightly inclining the head during that action.--4. The same as the preceding, but inclining the body also.--5. As above, but previously touching the ground with the right hand.--6. Kissing the hand of the person to whom the obeisance is paid.--7. Kissing his sleeve.--8.

Kissing the skirt of his clothing.--9. Kissing his feet.--10. Kissing the carpet or ground before him.--The first five modes are often accompanied by the salutation of "Peace be on you!" to which the reply is, "On you be peace, and the mercy of G.o.d, and his blessings!" The sixth mode is observed by servants or pupils to masters, by the wife to the husband, and by children to their father, and sometimes to the mother. It is also an act of homage paid to the aged by the young; or to learned or religious men by the less instructed or less devout. The last mode is seldom observed but to kings; and in Arabian countries it is now very uncommon.

NOTE 15. It might seem unnecessary to say, that a King understood what he read, were it not explained that the style of Arabic epistolary compositions, like that of the literature in general, differs considerably from that of common conversation.

NOTE 16. The party travelled chiefly by night, on account of the heat of the day.

NOTE 17.--_On the occasional Decorations of Eastern Cities._ On various occasions of rejoicing in the palace of the king or governor, the inhabitants of an Eastern city are commanded to decorate their houses, and the tradesmen, in particular, to adorn their shops, by suspending shawls, brocades, rich dresses, women's ornaments, and all kinds of costly articles of merchandise; lamps and flags are attached to cords drawn across the streets, which are often canopied over; and when sufficient notice has been given, the shops, and the doors, &c., of private houses, are painted with gay colours.--Towards the close of the year 1834, the people of Cairo were ordered to decorate their houses and shops previously to the arrival of Ibraheem Basha, after his victorious campaigns in Syria and Asia Minor. They ornamented the lower parts of their houses with whitewash and red ochre, generally in broad, alternate, horizontal stripes; that is, one course of stone white, and the next red; but the only kind of oil-paint that they could procure in large quant.i.ties was blue, the colour of mourning; so that they were obliged to use this as the ground upon which to paint flowers and other ornamental devices on their shops; but they regarded this as portending a pestilence; and the awful plague of the following spring confirmed them in their superst.i.tious notions.

NOTE 18. As the notes to this introductory portion are especially numerous, and the chase is here but cursorily alluded to, I shall reserve an account of the mode of hunting to be given on a future occasion.

NOTE 19.--_On the opinions of the Arabs respecting Female Beauty._ The reader should have some idea of the qualifications or charms which the Arabs in general consider requisite to the perfection of female beauty; for erroneous fancies on this subject would much detract from the interest of the present work. He must not imagine that excessive fatness is one of these characteristics; though it is said to be esteemed a chief essential to beauty throughout the greater part of Northern Africa: on the contrary, the maiden whose loveliness inspires the most impa.s.sioned expressions in Arabic poetry and prose is celebrated for her slender figure: she is like the cane among plants, and is elegant as a twig of the oriental willow.[47] Her face is like the full moon, presenting the strongest contrast to the colour of her hair, which (to preserve the nature of the simile just employed,) is of the deepest hue of night, and descends to the middle of her back. A rosy blush overspreads the centre of each cheek; and a mole is considered an additional charm. The Arabs, indeed, are particularly extravagant in their admiration of this natural beauty-spot; which, according to its place, is compared to a globule of ambergris upon a dish of alabaster or upon the surface of a ruby.[48] The eyes of the Arab beauty are intensely black, large, and long; of the form of an almond: they are full of brilliancy; but this is softened by a lid slightly depressed, and by long silken lashes, giving a tender and languid expression, which is full of enchantment, and scarcely to be improved by the advent.i.tious aid of the black border of ko?l; for this the lovely maiden adds rather for the sake of fashion than necessity; having, what the Arabs term, natural ko?l. The eyebrows are thin and arched; the forehead is wide, and fair as ivory; the nose, straight; the mouth, small; the lips are of a brilliant red; and the teeth, "like pearls set in coral." The forms of the bosom are compared to two pomegranates; the waist is slender; the hips are wide and large; the feet and hands, small; the fingers, tapering, and their extremities dyed with the deep orange-red tint imparted by the leaves of the ?enna.[49] The person in whom these charms are combined exhibits a lively image of "the rosy-fingered Aurora:" her lover knows neither night nor sleep in her presence, and the constellations of heaven are no longer seen by him when she approaches.

The most bewitching age is between fourteen and seventeen years; for then the forms of womanhood are generally developed in their greatest beauty; but many a maiden in her twelfth year possesses charms sufficient to fascinate every youth or man who beholds her.

The reader may perhaps desire a more minute a.n.a.lysis of Arabian beauty.

The following is the most complete that I can offer him.--"Four things in a woman should be _black_; the hair of the head, the eyebrows, the eyelashes, and the dark part of the eyes: four _white_; the complexion of the skin, the white of the eyes, the teeth, and the legs: four _red_; the tongue, the lips, the middle of the cheeks, and the gums: four _round_; the head, the neck, the fore-arms, and the ankles: four _long_; the back, the fingers, the arms, and the legs:[50] four _wide_; the forehead, the eyes, the bosom, and the hips: four _fine_; the eyebrows, the nose, the lips, and the fingers: four _thick_; the lower part of the back, the thighs, the calves of the legs, and the knees: four _small_; the ears, the b.r.e.a.s.t.s, the hands, and the feet."[51]

NOTE 20. Mes'ood is a common proper name of men, and signifies "happy,"

or "made happy."

NOTE 21.--_On the_ Jinn, _or Genii._ The frequent mention of Genii in this work, and the erroneous accounts that have been given of these fabulous beings by various European writers, have induced me to examine the statements respecting them in several Arabic works; and I shall here offer the result of my investigation, with a previous account of the Angels.

The Muslims, in general, believe in three different species of created intelligent beings; namely, Angels, who are created of light; Genii, who are created of fire; and Men, created of earth. The first species are called "Melaikeh" (sing. "Melek"); the second, "Jinn" or "Ginn" (sing.

"Jinnee" or "Ginnee"); the third, "Ins" (sing. "Insee"). Some hold that the Devils (Shey?ans) are of a species distinct from Angels and Jinn; but the more prevailing opinion, and that which rests on the highest authority, is, that they are rebellious Jinn.