The Student's Elements of Geology Part 53

(FIGURE 492. Cochliodus contortus, Aga.s.siz. Bone-bed, Mountain Limestone.

Bristol, Armagh.)

The distribution of these is singularly partial; so much so, that M. De Koninck of Liege, the eminent palaeontologist, once stated to me that, in making his extensive collection of the fossils of the Mountain Limestone of Belgium, he had found no more than four or five examples of the bones or teeth of fishes.

Judging from Belgian data, he might have concluded that this cla.s.s of vertebrata was of extreme rarity in the Carboniferous seas; whereas the investigation of other countries has led to quite a different result. Thus, near Clifton, on the Avon, as well as at numerous places around the Bristol basin from the Mendip Hills to Tortworth, there is a celebrated "bone-bed," almost entirely made up of ichthyolites. It occurs at the base of the Lower Limestone shales immediately resting upon the pa.s.sage beds of the Old Red Sandstone. Similar bone-beds occur in the Carboniferous Limestone of Armagh, in Ireland, where they are made up chiefly of the teeth of fishes of the Placoid order, nearly all of them rolled as if drifted from a distance. Some teeth are sharp and pointed, as in ordinary sharks, of which the genus Cladodus afford an ill.u.s.tration; but the majority, as in Psammodus and Cochliodus, are, like the teeth of the Cestracion of Port Jackson (see Figure 261), ma.s.sive palatal teeth fitted for grinding. (See Figures 491, 492.)

There are upward of seventy other species of fossil fish known in the Mountain Limestone of the British Islands. The defensive fin-bones of these creatures are not infrequent at Armagh and Bristol; those known as Oracanthus, Ctenocanthus, and Onchus are often of a very large size. Ganoid fish, such as Holoptychius, also occur; but these are far less numerous. The great Megalichthys Hibberti appears to range from the Upper Coal-measures to the lowest Carboniferous strata.

FORAMINIFERA.

(FIGURE 493. Fusulina cylindrica, d'Orbigny. Magnified 3 diameters. Mountain Limestone.)

In the upper part of the Mountain Limestone group in the south-west of England, near Bristol, limestones having a distinct oolitic structure alternate with shales. In these rocks the nucleus of every minute spherule is seen, under the microscope, to consist of a small rhizopod or foraminifer. This division of the lower animals, which is represented so fully at later epochs by the Nummulites and their numerous minute allies, appears in the Mountain Limestone to be restricted to a very few species, among which Textularia, Nodosaria, Endothyra, and Fusulina (Figure 493), have been recognised. The first two genera are common to this and all the after periods; the third has been found in the Upper Silurian, but is not known above the Carboniferous strata; the fourth (Figure 493) is characteristic of the Mountain Limestone in the United States, Arctic America, Russia, and Asia Minor, but is also known in the Permian.

CHAPTER XXV.

DEVONIAN OR OLD RED SANDSTONE GROUP.

Cla.s.sification of the Old Red Sandstone in Scotland and in Devonshire.

Upper Old Red Sandstone in Scotland, with Fish and Plants.

Middle Old Red Sandstone.

Cla.s.sification of the Ichthyolites of the Old Red, and their Relation to Living Types.

Lower Old Red Sandstone, with Cephalaspis and Pterygotus.

Marine or Devonian Type of Old Red Sandstone.

Table of Devonian Series.

Upper Devonian Rocks and Fossils.

Middle.

Lower.

Eifel Limestone of Germany.

Devonian of Russia.

Devonian Strata of the United States and Canada.

Devonian Plants and Insects of Canada.

CLa.s.sIFICATION OF THE TWO TYPES OF OLD RED SANDSTONE.

We have seen that the Carboniferous strata are surmounted by the Permian and Trias, both originally included in England under the name "New Red Sandstone,"

from the prevailing red colour of the strata. Under the coal came other red sandstones and shales which were distinguished by the t.i.tle of "Old Red Sandstone." Afterwards the name of "Devonian" was given by Sir R. Murchison and Professor Sedgwick to marine fossiliferous strata which, in the south of England, occupy a similar position between the overlying coal and the underlying Silurian formations.

It may be truly said that in the British Isles the rocks of this age present themselves in their mineral aspect, and even to some extent in their fossil contents, under two very different forms; the one as distinct from the other as are often lacustrine or fluviatile from marine strata. It has indeed been suggested that by far the greater part of the deposits belonging to what may be termed the Old Red Sandstone type are of fresh-water origin. The number of land- plants, the character of the fishes, and the fact that the only sh.e.l.l yet discovered belongs to the genus Anodonta, must be allowed to lend no small countenance to this opinion. In this case the difficulty of cla.s.sification when the strata of this type are compared in different regions, even where they are contiguous, may arise partly from their having been formed in distinct hydrographical basins, or in the neighbourhood of the land in shallow parts of the sea into which large bodies of fresh-water entered, and where no marine mollusca or corals could flourish. Under such geographical conditions the limited extent of some kinds of sediment, as well as the absence of those marine forms by which we are able to identify or contrast marine formations, may be explained, while the great thickness of the rocks, which might seem at first sight to require a corresponding depth of water, can often be shown to have been due to the gradual sinking down of the bottom of the estuary or sea where the sediment was acc.u.mulated.

Another active cause of local variation in Scotland was the frequency of contemporaneous volcanic eruptions; some of the rocks derived from this source, as between the Grampians and the Tay, having formed islands in the sea, and having been converted into shingle and conglomerate, before the upper portions of the red shales and sandstones were superimposed.

The dearth of calcareous matter over wide areas is characteristic of the Old Red Sandstone. This is, no doubt, in great part due to the absence of sh.e.l.ls and corals; but why should these be so generally wanting in all sedimentary rocks the colour of which is determined by the red oxide of iron? Some geologists are of opinion that the waters impregnated with this oxide were prejudicial to living beings, others that strata permeated with this oxide would not preserve such fossil remains.

In regard to the two types, the Old Red Sandstone and the Devonian, I shall first treat of them separately, and then allude to the proofs of their having been to a great extent contemporaneous. That they const.i.tute a series of rocks intermediate in date between the lowest Carboniferous and the uppermost Silurian is not disputed by the ablest geologists; and it can no longer be contended that the Upper, Middle, and Lower Old Red Sandstone preceded in date the three divisions to which, by aid of the marine sh.e.l.ls, the Devonian rocks have been referred, while, on the other hand, we have not yet data for enabling us to affirm to what extent the subdivisions of the one series may be the equivalents in time of those of the other.

UPPER OLD RED SANDSTONE.

(FIGURE 494. Anodonta Jukesii, Forbes. Upper Devonian, Kiltorkan, Ireland.)

(FIGURE 495. Bifurcating branch of Lepidodendron Griffithsii, Brongn. Upper Devonian, Kilkenny.)

(FIGURE 496. Palaeopteris Hibernica, Schimp. (Cyclopteris Hibernica), Edward Forbes (Adiant.i.tes, Gop.). Upper Devonian, Kilkenny.)

The highest beds of the series in Scotland, lying immediately below the coal in Fife, are composed of yellow sandstone well seen at Dura Den, near Coupar, in Fife, where, although the strata contain no mollusca, fish have been found abundantly, and have been referred to the genera Holoptychius, Pamphractus, Glyptopomus, and many others. In the county of Cork, in Ireland, a similar yellow sandstone occurs containing fish of genera characteristic of the Scotch Old Red Sandstone, as for example Coccosteus (a form represented by many species in the Old Red Sandstone and by one only in the Carboniferous group), and Glytolepis and Asterolepis, both exclusively confined to the "Old Red." In the same Irish sandstone at Kiltorkan has been found an Anodonta or fresh-water mussel, the only sh.e.l.l hitherto discovered in the Old Red Sandstone of the British Isles (see Figure 494). In the same formation are found the fern (Figure 496) and the Lepidodendron (Figure 495), and other species of plants, some of which, Professor Heer remarks, agree specifically with species from the lower carboniferous beds. This induces him to lean to the opinion long ago advocated by Sir Richard Griffiths, that the yellow sandstone, in spite of its fish remains, should be cla.s.sed as Lower Carboniferous, an opinion which I am not yet prepared to adopt. Between the Mountain Limestone and the yellow sandstone in the south-west of Ireland there intervenes a formation no less than 5000 feet thick, called the "Carboniferous slate," and at the base of this, in some places, are local deposits, such as the Glengariff Grits, which appear to be beds of pa.s.sage between the Carboniferous and Old Red Sandstone groups.

It is a remarkable result of the recent examination of the fossil flora of Bear Island, lat.i.tude 74 degrees 30' N., that Professor Heer has described as occurring in that part of the Arctic region (nearly twenty-six degrees to the north of the Irish locality) a flora agreeing in several of its species with that of the yellow sandstones of Ireland. This Bear Island flora is believed by Professor Heer to comprise species of plants some of which ascend even to the higher stages of the European Carboniferous formation, or as high as the Mountain Limestone and Millstone Grit. Palaeontologists have long maintained that the same species which have a wide range in s.p.a.ce are also the most persistent in time, which may prepare us to find that some plants having a vast geographical range may also have endured from the period of the Upper Devonian to that of the Millstone Grit.

(FIGURE 497. Scale of Holoptychius n.o.bilissimus, Aga.s.siz. Clashbinnie. 1/2 natural size.)

(FIGURE 498. Holoptychius, as restored by Professor Huxley.

a. The fringed pectoral fins.

b. The fringed ventral fins.

c. a.n.a.l fin.

d, e. Dorsal fins.)

Outliers of the Upper "Old Red" occur unconformably on older members of the group, and the formation represented at Whiteness, near Arbroath, a, Figure 55, may probably be one of these outliers, though the want of organic remains renders this uncertain. It is not improbable that the beds given in this section as Nos. 1, 2, and 3, may all belong to the early part of the period of the Upper Old Red, as some scales of Holoptychius n.o.bilissimus have been found scattered through these beds, No. 2, in Strathmore. Another nearly allied Holoptychius occurs in Dura Den, see Figure 498 of this fish and also Figure 497 of one of its scales, as these last are often the only parts met with; being scattered in Forfarshire through red-coloured shales and sandstones, as are scales of a large species of the same genus in a corresponding matrix in Herefordshire. (Siluria 4th edition page 265.) The number of fish obtained from the British Upper Old Red Sandstone amounts to fifteen species referred to eleven genera.

Sir R. Murchison groups with this upper division of the Old Red of Scotland certain light-red and yellow sandstones and grits which occur in the northernmost part of the mainland, and extend also into the Orkney and Shetland Islands. They contain Calamites and other plants which agree generically with Carboniferous forms.

MIDDLE OLD RED SANDSTONE.

In the northern part of Scotland there occur a great series of bituminous schists and flagstones, to the fossil fish of which attention was first called by the late Hugh Miller. They were afterwards described by Aga.s.siz, and the rocks containing them were examined by Sir R. Murchison and Professor Sedgwick, in Caithness, Cromarty, Moray, Nairn, Gamrie in Banff, and the Orkneys and Shetlands, in which great numbers of fossil fish have been found. These were at first supposed to be the oldest known vertebrate animals, as in Cromarty the beds in which they occur seem to form the base of the Old Red system resting almost immediately on the crystalline or metamorphic rocks. But in fact these fish-bearing beds, when they are traced from north to south, or to the central parts of Scotland, thin out, so that their relative age to the Lower Old Red Sandstone, presently to be mentioned, was not at first detected, the two formations not appearing in superposition in the same district. In Caithness, however, many hundred feet below the fish-zone of the middle division, remains of Pteraspis were found by Mr. Peach in 1861. This genus has never yet been found in either of the two higher divisions of the Old Red Sandstone, and confirms Sir R. Murchison's previous suspicion that the rocks in which it occurs belong to the Lower "Old Red," or agree in age with the Arbroath paving-stone.

(Siluria 4th edition page 258.)

FOSSIL FISH OF THE MIDDLE OLD RED SANDSTONE.

The Devonian fish were referred by Aga.s.siz to two of his great orders, namely, the Placoids and Ganoids. Of the first of these, which in the Recent period comprise the shark, the dog-fish, and the ray, no entire skeletons are preserved, but fin-spines, called ichthyodorulites, and teeth occur. On such remains the genera Onchus, Odontacanthus, and Ctenodus, a supposed cestraciont, and some others, have been established.

(FIGURE 499. Polypterus. See Aga.s.siz, "Recherces sur les Poissons Fossiles."

Living in the Nile and other African rivers.

a. One of the fringed pectoral fins.

b. One of the ventral fins.

c. a.n.a.l fin.

d. Dorsal fin, or row of finlets.)

(FIGURE 500. Restoration of Osteolepis. Pander. Old Red Sandstone, or Devonian.

a. One of the fringed pectoral fins.

b. One of the ventral fins.

c. a.n.a.l fin.

d, e. Dorsal fins.)

By far the greater number of the Old Red Sandstone fishes belong to a sub-order of Ganoids inst.i.tuted by Huxley in 1861, and for which he has proposed the name of Crossopterygidae (Abridged from crossotos, a fringe, and pteryx, a fin.), or the fringe-finned, in consideration of the peculiar manner in which the fin-rays of the paired fins are arranged so as to form a fringe round a central lobe, as in the Polypterus (see a, Figure 499), a genus of which there are several species now inhabiting the Nile and other African rivers. The reader will at once recognise in Osteolepis (Figure 500), one of the common fishes of the Old Red Sandstone, many points of a.n.a.logy with Polypterus. They not only agree in the structure of the fin, at first pointed out by Huxley, but also in the position of the pectoral, ventral, and a.n.a.l fins, and in having an elongated body and rhomboidal scales. On the other hand, the tail is more symmetrical in the recent fish, which has also an apparatus of dorsal finlets of a very abnormal character, both as to number and structure. As to the dorsals of Osteolepis, they are regular in structure and position, having nothing remarkable about them, except that there are two of them, which is comparatively unusual in living fish.

Among the "fringe-finned" Ganoids we find some with rhomboidal scales, such as Osteolepis, Figure 500; others with cycloidal scales, as Holoptychius, before mentioned (see Figure 498). In the genera Dipterus and Diplopterus, as Hugh Miller pointed out, and in several other of the fringe-finned genera, as in Gyroptychius and Glyptolepis, the two dorsals are placed far backward, or directly over the ventral and a.n.a.l fins. The Asterolepis was a ganoid fish of gigantic dimensions. A. Asmusii, Eichwald, a species characteristic of the Old Red Sandstone of Russia, as well as that of Scotland, attained the length of between twenty and thirty feet. It was clothed with strong bony armour, embossed with star-like tubercles, but it had only a cartilaginous skeleton. The mouth was furnished with two rows of teeth, the outer ones small and fish-like, the inner larger and with a reptilian character. The Asterolepis occurs also in the Devonian rocks of North America.

If we except the Placoids already alluded to, and a few other families of doubtful affinities, all the Old Red Sandstone fishes are Ganoids, an order so named by Aga.s.siz from the shining outer surface of their scales; but Professor Huxley has also called our attention to the fact that, while a few of the primary and the great majority of the secondary Ganoids resemble the living bony pike, Lepidosteus, or the Amia, genera now found in North American rivers, and one of them, Lepidosteus, extending as far south as Guatemala, the Crossopterygii, or fringe-finned Ichthyolites, of the Old Red are closely related to the African Polypterus, which is represented by five or six species now inhabiting the Nile and the rivers of Senegal. These North American and African Ganoids are quite exceptional in the living creation; they are entirely confined to the northern hemisphere, unless some species of Polypterus range to the south of the line in Africa; and, out of about 9000 living species of fish known to M. Gunther, and of which more than 6000 are now preserved in the British Museum, they probably const.i.tute no more than nine.