The Rough Guide To Amsterdam Part 16

Festivals and events August De Parade First two weeks First two weeks www.deparade.nl. Tram #25 from CS. An excellent sixteen-day travelling theatrical fair, which puts on a host of short, independent performances, ranging from cabaret to theatre, given in or in front of artists' tents. Held in the Martin Luther King park, next to the River Amstel, with special kid-friendly performances in the afternoon.

Amsterdam Pride First or second weekend First or second weekend www.amsterdampride.nl. The city's gay community celebrates, with street parties and performances held along the Amstel, Warmoesstraat and Reguliersdwarsstraat. The Ca.n.a.l Parade takes place on the 2pm and Sat.u.r.day between 26pm, a flotilla of up to 75 boats cruising along the Prinsengracht, watched by over 350,000 people.

Grachtenfestival Starts second or third weekend Starts second or third weekend www.grachtenfestival.nl. For nine days international musicians perform at over ninety cla.s.sical music events at historical locations around the three main ca.n.a.ls, as well as the River IJ. Includes the Prinsengracht Concert, one of the world's most prestigious free open-air concerts, held opposite the Pulitzer Pulitzer hotel. hotel.

Uitmarkt Last weekend Last weekend www.uitmarkt.nl. Every cultural organization in the city, from opera to dance, advertises its forthcoming programme of events during this weekend, with free preview performances held over three days around Dam Square, Waterlooplein and Nieuwmarkt.

Festivals and events September Open Monument Day Second weekend Second weekend www.openmonumentendag.nl. For two days monuments throughout the Netherlands that are normally closed or have restricted opening times throw open their doors to the public for free.

Jordaan Festival Second or third weekend Second or third weekend www.jordaanfestival.nl. A three-day street festival in the Jordaan. There's a commercial fair on Palmgracht, talent contests on Elandsgracht, a few street parties and a culinary fair on the Sunday afternoon at the Noordermarkt.

Festivals and events October Amsterdam City Marathon Usually third Sunday Usually third Sunday www.amsterdammarathon.nl. A 42-kilometre course around Amsterdam starting at and finishing inside the Olympic Stadium, pa.s.sing through the old city centre along the way.

Amsterdam Dance Event Late Oct Late Oct www.amsterdam-dance-event.nl. A four-day club festival, hosting hundreds of national and international DJs taking over every dance venue in the city. Also a conference for turntable professionals. Tickets for all events have to be purchased separately and tend to sell out quickly.

Festivals and events November Museum Night First Sat.u.r.day First Sat.u.r.day www.n8.nl. Around forty museums open their doors to the public from 7pm to 2am, with various events put on, accompanied by DJs and music. Tickets 20.

Parade of Sint Nicolaas Second or third Sunday. The traditional parade of Second or third Sunday. The traditional parade of Sinterklaas Sinterklaas (Santa Claus) through the city on his white horse. Starting from behind Centraal Station where he arrives by steam boat, he proceeds down the Damrak towards Rembrandtplein, accompanied by his helpers the (Santa Claus) through the city on his white horse. Starting from behind Centraal Station where he arrives by steam boat, he proceeds down the Damrak towards Rembrandtplein, accompanied by his helpers the Zwarte Pieten Zwarte Pieten ("Black Peters") so called because of their blackened faces who hand out sweets and little presents. It all finishes in Leidseplein on the balcony of the Stadsschouwburg. ("Black Peters") so called because of their blackened faces who hand out sweets and little presents. It all finishes in Leidseplein on the balcony of the Stadsschouwburg.

International Doc.u.mentary Film Festival Mid- to late Nov Mid- to late Nov www.idfa.nl. The world's largest doc.u.mentary festival held over ten days in the Tuschinski Tuschinski and and De Munt De Munt showing around 250 domestic and international doc.u.mentaries. showing around 250 domestic and international doc.u.mentaries.

Cannabis Cup Late Nov Late Nov www.hightimes.com. Five-day "harvest festival" organized by High Times High Times magazine with seminars, tours and music events held at the magazine with seminars, tours and music events held at the Powerzone Powerzone, which also hosts a compet.i.tion to find the best cultivated seed. Judging is open to the general public, but a judge pa.s.s is pricey (250).

Festivals and events December Pakjesavond (Present Evening) Dec 5. Though it tends to be a private affair, Pakjesavond, rather than Christmas Day, is when Dutch kids receive their Christmas presents. If you're in the city on that day and have Dutch friends, it's worth knowing that it's traditional to give a present together with an amusing poem you have written caricaturing the recipient. Dec 5. Though it tends to be a private affair, Pakjesavond, rather than Christmas Day, is when Dutch kids receive their Christmas presents. If you're in the city on that day and have Dutch friends, it's worth knowing that it's traditional to give a present together with an amusing poem you have written caricaturing the recipient.

New Year's Eve Dec 31. New Year's Eve is big in Amsterdam, with fireworks and celebrations everywhere. Most bars and clubs stay open until morning make sure you get tickets in advance. This might just qualify as the wildest and most reckless street partying in Europe, but a word of warning: Amsterdammers seem to love the idea of throwing lit fireworks around and won't hesitate to send one careering into the crowd. Dec 31. New Year's Eve is big in Amsterdam, with fireworks and celebrations everywhere. Most bars and clubs stay open until morning make sure you get tickets in advance. This might just qualify as the wildest and most reckless street partying in Europe, but a word of warning: Amsterdammers seem to love the idea of throwing lit fireworks around and won't hesitate to send one careering into the crowd.

Contexts History Dutch art Books

History To a large extent, a history of Amsterdam history of Amsterdam is a history of the whole of the Netherlands, which includes the province of Holland. In turn, the Netherlands of today was an integral part of the is a history of the whole of the Netherlands, which includes the province of Holland. In turn, the Netherlands of today was an integral part of the Low Countries Low Countries modern Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands until the late sixteenth century. It was then that the Dutch broke with their Spanish Habsburg masters and, ever since, Amsterdam has been at the centre of Dutch events. The city was the country's most glorious cultural and trading centre throughout its seventeenth-century heyday, the so-called modern Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands until the late sixteenth century. It was then that the Dutch broke with their Spanish Habsburg masters and, ever since, Amsterdam has been at the centre of Dutch events. The city was the country's most glorious cultural and trading centre throughout its seventeenth-century heyday, the so-called Golden Age Golden Age, and, after a long downturn in the eighteenth century, picked itself up to emerge as a major metropolis in the nineteenth. In the 1960s Amsterdam was galvanized by its youth, who took to hippy culture hippy culture with gusto; their legacy is a social progressiveness most conspicuously over drugs and prost.i.tution that still underpins the city's international reputation, good and bad, today. with gusto; their legacy is a social progressiveness most conspicuously over drugs and prost.i.tution that still underpins the city's international reputation, good and bad, today.

History Medieval foundations Amsterdam's earliest history is as murky as the marshes from which it arose. Legend a.s.serts that two Frisian fishermen were the first inhabitants and, it is indeed likely that the city began as a fishing village at the mouth of the River Amstel River Amstel. Previously, this area had been a stretch of peat bog and marsh, but a modest fall in the sea level permitted settlement on the high ground along the riverside. The village was first given some significance when the local lord built a castle here around 1204, and then, some sixty years later, the Amstel was dammed hence Amstelredam and it received its munic.i.p.al charter charter from a new feudal overlord, Count Floris V, in 1275. Designating the village a toll port for beer imported from Hamburg, the charter led to Amsterdam flourishing as a trading centre from around 1300, when it also became an important transit port for Baltic grain, destined for the burgeoning cities of the Low Countries (broadly Belgium and the Netherlands). from a new feudal overlord, Count Floris V, in 1275. Designating the village a toll port for beer imported from Hamburg, the charter led to Amsterdam flourishing as a trading centre from around 1300, when it also became an important transit port for Baltic grain, destined for the burgeoning cities of the Low Countries (broadly Belgium and the Netherlands).

As Amsterdam grew, its trade trade diversified. In particular, it made a handsome profit from English diversified. In particular, it made a handsome profit from English wool wool, which was imported into the city, barged onto Leiden and Haarlem where it was turned into cloth and then much of it returned to Amsterdam to be exported. The cloth trade drew workers into the town to work along Warmoesstraat and the Amstel, and ships were able to sail right up to Dam Square to pick up the finished work and drop off imported wood, fish, salt and spices.

Though the city's population population rose steadily in the early sixteenth century, to around 12,000, Amsterdam was still small compared with Antwerp or London; building on the waterlogged soil was difficult and slow, requiring timber piles to be driven into the firmer sand below. And with the extensive use of timber and thatch, rose steadily in the early sixteenth century, to around 12,000, Amsterdam was still small compared with Antwerp or London; building on the waterlogged soil was difficult and slow, requiring timber piles to be driven into the firmer sand below. And with the extensive use of timber and thatch, fires fires were a frequent occurrence. A particularly disastrous blaze in 1452 resulted in such destruction that the city council made building with slate, brick and stone obligatory; one of the few wooden houses that survived the fire still stands today in were a frequent occurrence. A particularly disastrous blaze in 1452 resulted in such destruction that the city council made building with slate, brick and stone obligatory; one of the few wooden houses that survived the fire still stands today in the Begijnhof the Begijnhof. In the mid-sixteenth century the city underwent its first major expansion expansion, as burgeoning trade with the Hanseatic towns of the Baltic made the city second only to Antwerp as a marketplace and warehouse for northern and western Europe. The trade in cloth, grain and wine brought craftsmen to the city, and its merchant fleet grew; by the 1550s three-quarters of all grain cargo out of the Baltic was carried in Amsterdam vessels. The foundations were being laid for the wealth of the Golden Age.

History The rise of Protestantism At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the corruption and elaborate ritual of the established (Catholic) Church Church found itself under attack throughout northern Europe. First, Erasmus of Rotterdam promoted ideas of reformation, and then, in 1517, found itself under attack throughout northern Europe. First, Erasmus of Rotterdam promoted ideas of reformation, and then, in 1517, Martin Luther Martin Luther (14831546) went one step or rather, leap further, producing his 95 theses against the Church practice of indulgences, a prelude to his more comprehensive a.s.sault on the entire inst.i.tution. Furthermore, when Luther's works were disseminated his ideas gained a European following among a range of reforming groups branded as (14831546) went one step or rather, leap further, producing his 95 theses against the Church practice of indulgences, a prelude to his more comprehensive a.s.sault on the entire inst.i.tution. Furthermore, when Luther's works were disseminated his ideas gained a European following among a range of reforming groups branded as Lutheran Lutheran by the Church, while other reformers were drawn to the doctrines of by the Church, while other reformers were drawn to the doctrines of John Calvin John Calvin (150964). Luther a.s.serted that the Church's political power should be subservient to that of the state; Calvin emphasized the importance of individual conscience and the need for redemption through the grace of Christ rather than the confessional. Luther's writings and Bible translations were printed in the Netherlands, but the doctrines of Calvin proved more popular in Amsterdam, setting the seal on the city's religious transformation. Calvin was insistent on the separation of Church and State, but the lines were easily fudged in Amsterdam by the Church's ruling council of ministers and annually elected elders, who soon came to exercise considerable political clout. The council also had little time for other (more egalitarian) Protestant sects, and matters came to a head when, in 1535, one of the radical splinter groups, the (150964). Luther a.s.serted that the Church's political power should be subservient to that of the state; Calvin emphasized the importance of individual conscience and the need for redemption through the grace of Christ rather than the confessional. Luther's writings and Bible translations were printed in the Netherlands, but the doctrines of Calvin proved more popular in Amsterdam, setting the seal on the city's religious transformation. Calvin was insistent on the separation of Church and State, but the lines were easily fudged in Amsterdam by the Church's ruling council of ministers and annually elected elders, who soon came to exercise considerable political clout. The council also had little time for other (more egalitarian) Protestant sects, and matters came to a head when, in 1535, one of the radical splinter groups, the Anabaptists Anabaptists, occupied Amsterdam's town hall, calling on pa.s.sers-by to repent. Previously the town council had tolerated the Anabaptists, but, prompted by the Calvinists, it acted swiftly when civic rule was challenged; the town hall was besieged and, after its capture, the leaders of the Anabaptists were executed on the Dam.

History The revolt of the Netherlands In 1555, the fanatically Catholic Philip II Philip II succeeded to the Spanish throne. Through a series of marriages the Spanish monarchy and succeeded to the Spanish throne. Through a series of marriages the Spanish monarchy and Habsburg Habsburg family had come to rule over the Low Countries, and Philip was determined to rid his empire of its heretics, regardless of whether they were Calvinists or Anabaptists. Philip promptly garrisoned the towns of the Low Countries with Spanish mercenaries, imported the family had come to rule over the Low Countries, and Philip was determined to rid his empire of its heretics, regardless of whether they were Calvinists or Anabaptists. Philip promptly garrisoned the towns of the Low Countries with Spanish mercenaries, imported the Inquisition Inquisition and pa.s.sed a series of anti-Protestant edicts. However, other pressures on the Habsburg Empire forced him into a tactical withdrawal and he transferred control of the Low Countries to his sister, and pa.s.sed a series of anti-Protestant edicts. However, other pressures on the Habsburg Empire forced him into a tactical withdrawal and he transferred control of the Low Countries to his sister, Margaret of Parma Margaret of Parma, in 1559. Based in Brussels, the equally resolute Margaret implemented the policies of her brother with gusto. In 1561 she reorganized the Church and created fourteen new bishoprics, a move that was construed as a wresting of power from civil authority, and an attempt to destroy the local aristocracy's powers of religious patronage. Right across the Low Countries, Protestantism Protestantism and Protestant sympathies spread to the n.o.bility, who now formed the "League of the n.o.bility" to counter Habsburg policy. The League pet.i.tioned Margaret for moderation but were dismissed out of hand by one of her (French-speaking) advisers, who called them " and Protestant sympathies spread to the n.o.bility, who now formed the "League of the n.o.bility" to counter Habsburg policy. The League pet.i.tioned Margaret for moderation but were dismissed out of hand by one of her (French-speaking) advisers, who called them "ces geux" (those beggars), an epithet that was to be enthusiastically adopted by the rebels. In 1565 a harvest failure caused a winter famine among the urban workers of the region and, after years of repression, they struck back. In 1566 a Protestant sermon in the tiny Flemish textile town of Steenvoorde incited the congregation to purge the local church of its "papist" idolatry. The crowd smashed up the church's reliquaries and shrines, broke the stained-gla.s.s windows and terrorized the priests, thereby igniting what is commonly called the Iconoclastic Fury Iconoclastic Fury. The rioting spread like wildfire and within ten days churches had been ransacked from one end of the Low Countries to the other, nowhere more so than in Amsterdam hence the plain, whitewashed interiors of many of the city's churches today.

History The revolt of the Netherlands The revolt of the Netherlands The Council of Blood and the Waterguezen The ferocity of this outbreak shocked the upper cla.s.ses into renewed support for Spain, and Margaret regained the allegiance of most n.o.bles with the princ.i.p.al exception of the country's greatest landowner, Prince William of Orange-Na.s.sau, known as William the Silent William the Silent, who prudently slipped away to his estates in Germany. Meanwhile, Philip II was keen to capitalize on the increase in support for Margaret and, in 1567, he dispatched the Duke of Albe Duke of Albe, with an army of ten thousand men, to the Low Countries to suppress his religious opponents absolutely. One of Albe's first acts was to set up the Commission of Civil Unrest, which was soon nicknamed the "Council of Blood", after its habit of executing those it examined. No fewer than twelve thousand citizens were polished off, mostly for taking part in the Fury. Initially the repression worked; in 1568, when William attempted an invasion from Germany, the towns, including Amsterdam, offered no support. William withdrew and conceived other means of defeating Albe, sponsoring the Protestant privateers, the so-called Waterguezen Waterguezen or sea-beggars, who took their name from the epithet provided by Margaret's advisor. In April 1572, the Waterguezen entered Brielle on the Maas and captured it from the Spanish in the first of several commando-style attacks. At first, the Waterguezen were obliged to operate from England, but it was soon possible for them to secure bases in the Netherlands, whose citizens had grown to loathe the autocratic Albe and his Spanish army. or sea-beggars, who took their name from the epithet provided by Margaret's advisor. In April 1572, the Waterguezen entered Brielle on the Maas and captured it from the Spanish in the first of several commando-style attacks. At first, the Waterguezen were obliged to operate from England, but it was soon possible for them to secure bases in the Netherlands, whose citizens had grown to loathe the autocratic Albe and his Spanish army.

After the success at Brielle, the revolt spread rapidly. By June the rebels controlled all of the province of Holland except for Amsterdam, which steadfastly refused to come off the fence. Albe and his son Frederick fought back, but William's superior naval power frustrated him and a mightily irritated Philip replaced Albe with Luis de Resquesens Luis de Resquesens. Initially, Resquesens had some success in the south, where the Catholic majority were more willing to compromise with Spanish rule than their northern neighbours, but the tide of war was against him most pointedly in William's triumphant relief of Leiden in 1574. Two years later, Resquesens died and the (unpaid) Habsburg garrison in Antwerp mutinied and a.s.saulted the town, slaughtering some eight thousand of its people in what was known as the Spanish Fury Spanish Fury. The ma.s.sacre alienated the south and pushed its peoples including the doubting Thomases of Amsterdam into the arms of William, whose troops now swept into Brussels, the heart of imperial power. Momentarily, it seemed possible for the whole region to unite behind William and all signed the Union of Brussels Union of Brussels, which demanded the departure of foreign troops as a condition for accepting a diluted Habsburg sovereignty.

History The revolt of the Netherlands The revolt of the Netherlands The formation of the United Provinces Philip was, however, not inclined to compromise, especially when he realized that William's Calvinist sympathies were giving his newly found Walloon and Flemish allies (of modern-day Belgium) the jitters. The king bided his time until 1578, when, with his enemies arguing among themselves, he sent another army from Spain to the Low Countries under the command of Alessandro Farnese, the Duke of Parma Duke of Parma. Events played into Parma's hands. In 1579, tiring of all the wrangling, seven northern provinces agreed to sign the Union of Utrecht Union of Utrecht, an alliance against Spain that was to be the first unification of the Netherlands as an identifiable country the United Provinces United Provinces. It was then that Amsterdam formally declared for the rebels and switched from Catholicism to Calvinism in what became known as the "Alteratie" of 1578. The rebels had conceded freedom of religious belief, but in Amsterdam, as elsewhere, this did not extend to freedom of worship. Nonetheless, a pragmatic compromise was reached in which a blind eye was turned to the celebration of the Ma.s.s if it was done privately and inconspicuously. It was this ad hoc arrangement that gave rise to "clandestine" Catholic churches (schuilkerken) like that of the Amstelkring on Oudezijds Voorburgwal Oudezijds Voorburgwal.

The a.s.sembly of these United Provinces was known as the States General States General, and it met at Den Haag (The Hague); it had no domestic legislative authority, and could only carry out foreign policy by unanimous decision, a formula designed to rea.s.sure the independent-minded merchants of every Dutch city. The role of Stadholder Stadholder was the most important in each province, roughly equivalent to that of governor, though the same person could occupy this position in any number of provinces. Meanwhile, in the south and also in 1579 representatives of the southern provinces signed the was the most important in each province, roughly equivalent to that of governor, though the same person could occupy this position in any number of provinces. Meanwhile, in the south and also in 1579 representatives of the southern provinces signed the Union of Arras Union of Arras, a Catholic-led agreement that declared loyalty to Philip II and counterbalanced the Union of Utrecht in the north. Thus, the Low Countries were, de facto, divided into two the Spanish Netherlands Spanish Netherlands and the United Provinces beginning a separation that would lead, after many changes, to the creation of Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. With the return of more settled times, Amsterdam was now free to carry on with what it did best trading and making money. and the United Provinces beginning a separation that would lead, after many changes, to the creation of Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. With the return of more settled times, Amsterdam was now free to carry on with what it did best trading and making money.

History The Golden Age The brilliance of Amsterdam's explosion onto the European scene is as difficult to underestimate as it is to detail. The size of its merchant fleet merchant fleet carrying Baltic grain into Europe had long been considerable and even the Spaniards had been unable to undermine Dutch maritime strength. Furthermore, with the decline of Antwerp, whose skilled workers had fled north after their city had been incorporated into the Spanish Netherlands, Amsterdam now became the unrivalled emporium for the products of northern and southern Europe as well as the East and West Indies. The city didn't prosper from its market alone, though, as Amsterdam ships also carried produce, a cargo trade that greatly increased the city's wealth. Dutch carrying Baltic grain into Europe had long been considerable and even the Spaniards had been unable to undermine Dutch maritime strength. Furthermore, with the decline of Antwerp, whose skilled workers had fled north after their city had been incorporated into the Spanish Netherlands, Amsterdam now became the unrivalled emporium for the products of northern and southern Europe as well as the East and West Indies. The city didn't prosper from its market alone, though, as Amsterdam ships also carried produce, a cargo trade that greatly increased the city's wealth. Dutch banking and investment banking and investment brought further prosperity, and by the middle of the seventeenth century Amsterdam's wealth was spectacular. The Calvinist bourgeoisie indulged themselves in fine ca.n.a.l houses, and commissioned images of themselves in group portraits. Civic pride knew no bounds as great monuments to self-aggrandizement, such as the new brought further prosperity, and by the middle of the seventeenth century Amsterdam's wealth was spectacular. The Calvinist bourgeoisie indulged themselves in fine ca.n.a.l houses, and commissioned images of themselves in group portraits. Civic pride knew no bounds as great monuments to self-aggrandizement, such as the new town hall town hall (now (now the Koninklijk Paleis the Koninklijk Paleis), were hastily erected, and, if some went hungry, few starved, as the poor were cared for in munic.i.p.al almshouses.

The arts flourished and religious tolerance religious tolerance was extended even to the traditional scapegoats, the Jews, and in particular the Sephardic Jews, who had been hounded from Spain by the Inquisition, but were guaranteed freedom from religious persecution under the terms of the Union of Utrecht. By the end of the eighteenth century, Jews accounted for ten percent of the city's population. Guilds and craft a.s.sociations thrived, and in the first half of the seventeenth century Amsterdam's population quadrupled; the relatively high wages paid by the city's industries attracted agricultural workers from every part of the country and Protestant refugees arrived from every corner of Catholic Europe. was extended even to the traditional scapegoats, the Jews, and in particular the Sephardic Jews, who had been hounded from Spain by the Inquisition, but were guaranteed freedom from religious persecution under the terms of the Union of Utrecht. By the end of the eighteenth century, Jews accounted for ten percent of the city's population. Guilds and craft a.s.sociations thrived, and in the first half of the seventeenth century Amsterdam's population quadrupled; the relatively high wages paid by the city's industries attracted agricultural workers from every part of the country and Protestant refugees arrived from every corner of Catholic Europe.

History The Golden Age The Golden Age Tulipomania TulipomaniaNothing exemplifies the economic bubble of seventeenth-century Amsterdam more than the arrival of the tulip tulip. As a relatively exotic flower, a native of Turkey, it had already captured the imagination of other parts of Europe, and its arrival in the United Provinces coinciding as it did with an abrupt rise in personal domestic wealth led to it becoming the bloom of choice for the discerning collector and horticulturalist. New varieties were developed voraciously and the trade in tulip bulbs tulip bulbs boomed in the 1630s, with prices spiralling out of control and culminating in three rare bulbs changing hands for the price of a house. By this time it was less about flowers, and more about speculation, with tulips being seen as a way of getting rich quick. However, such speculation couldn't be sustained, and the bottom fell out of the tulip market in 1637, when, in the s.p.a.ce of three months, prices collapsed to around ten percent of their previous value, and thousands lost everything they possessed. Today tulips and other blooms still define some of the Dutch landscape, but seeing them up close is easiest at boomed in the 1630s, with prices spiralling out of control and culminating in three rare bulbs changing hands for the price of a house. By this time it was less about flowers, and more about speculation, with tulips being seen as a way of getting rich quick. However, such speculation couldn't be sustained, and the bottom fell out of the tulip market in 1637, when, in the s.p.a.ce of three months, prices collapsed to around ten percent of their previous value, and thousands lost everything they possessed. Today tulips and other blooms still define some of the Dutch landscape, but seeing them up close is easiest at the Keukenhof Gardens the Keukenhof Gardens, if you're here in springtime, or at Amsterdam's Bloemenmarkt Amsterdam's Bloemenmarkt.

History The Golden Age The Golden Age Expansion and the East and West India companies To accommodate its growing populace, Amsterdam expanded expanded several times during the seventeenth century. The grandest and most elaborate plan to enlarge the city was begun in 1613, with the digging of the western stretches of the Herengracht, Keizersgracht and Prinsengracht, the three great ca.n.a.ls of the several times during the seventeenth century. The grandest and most elaborate plan to enlarge the city was begun in 1613, with the digging of the western stretches of the Herengracht, Keizersgracht and Prinsengracht, the three great ca.n.a.ls of the Grachtengordel Grachtengordel (literally "girdle of ca.n.a.ls") that epitomized the wealth and self-confidence of the Golden Age. In 1663 this sweeping crescent was extended beyond the River Amstel, but by this time the population had begun to stabilize, and the stretch that would have completed the ring of ca.n.a.ls around the city was left only partially developed an area that would in time become (literally "girdle of ca.n.a.ls") that epitomized the wealth and self-confidence of the Golden Age. In 1663 this sweeping crescent was extended beyond the River Amstel, but by this time the population had begun to stabilize, and the stretch that would have completed the ring of ca.n.a.ls around the city was left only partially developed an area that would in time become the Jewish Quarter the Jewish Quarter.

One organization that kept the city's coffers br.i.m.m.i.n.g throughout the Golden Age was the East India Company East India Company (Verenigde OostIndische Compagnie, VOC). Formed in 1602, this Amsterdam-controlled enterprise sent ships to Asia, Indonesia and China to bring back spices, wood and other a.s.sorted plunder. Given a trading monopoly in all lands east of the Cape of Good Hope, it also exercised unlimited military powers over the lands it controlled, and was effectively the occupying government in Malaya, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Malacca. The speed of the VOC's vessels amazed the company's compet.i.tors and may well have given rise to the legend of the (Verenigde OostIndische Compagnie, VOC). Formed in 1602, this Amsterdam-controlled enterprise sent ships to Asia, Indonesia and China to bring back spices, wood and other a.s.sorted plunder. Given a trading monopoly in all lands east of the Cape of Good Hope, it also exercised unlimited military powers over the lands it controlled, and was effectively the occupying government in Malaya, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Malacca. The speed of the VOC's vessels amazed the company's compet.i.tors and may well have given rise to the legend of the Flying Dutchman Flying Dutchman. One story has it that the fastest VOC captain of them all, a certain Bernard Fokke, only achieved the sailing times he did with the help of the devil and his reward is to sail the seven seas forever; another has the VOC's Captain Hendrik van der Decken sailing round the Cape of Good Hope for eternity after blaspheming against the wind and the waves.

Twenty years after the founding of the VOC, the West India Company West India Company (Westindische Compagnie, WIC) was inaugurated to protect new Dutch interests in the Americas and Africa. It never achieved the success of the East India Company, expending its energies in waging war on Spanish and Portuguese colonies from a base in Surinam, but it did make handsome profits until the 1660s. The company was dismantled in 1674, ten years after its small colony of New Amsterdam had been ceded to the British and renamed (Westindische Compagnie, WIC) was inaugurated to protect new Dutch interests in the Americas and Africa. It never achieved the success of the East India Company, expending its energies in waging war on Spanish and Portuguese colonies from a base in Surinam, but it did make handsome profits until the 1660s. The company was dismantled in 1674, ten years after its small colony of New Amsterdam had been ceded to the British and renamed New York New York. Elsewhere, the Dutch held on to their colonies for as long as possible Indonesia, its princ.i.p.al possession, only secured its independence in 1949.

History The Golden Age The Golden Age Decline 1660 to 1795 Although the economics of the Golden Age were dazzling, the politics politics were dismal. The United Provinces was dogged by interminable wrangling between those who hankered for a central, unified government under the pre-eminent were dismal. The United Provinces was dogged by interminable wrangling between those who hankered for a central, unified government under the pre-eminent House of Orange House of Orange-Na.s.sau and those who championed provincial autonomy. Frederick Henry, the powerful head of the House of Orange-Na.s.sau who had kept a firm centralizing grip, died in 1647 and his successor, William II, lasted just three years before his death from smallpox. A week after William's death, his wife bore the son who would become William III of England, but in the meantime the leaders of the province of Holland, with the full support of Amsterdam, seized their opportunity. They forced measures through the States General abolishing the position of Stadholder, thereby reducing the powers of the Orangists and increasing those of the provinces, chiefly Holland itself. Holland's foremost figure in these years was and those who championed provincial autonomy. Frederick Henry, the powerful head of the House of Orange-Na.s.sau who had kept a firm centralizing grip, died in 1647 and his successor, William II, lasted just three years before his death from smallpox. A week after William's death, his wife bore the son who would become William III of England, but in the meantime the leaders of the province of Holland, with the full support of Amsterdam, seized their opportunity. They forced measures through the States General abolishing the position of Stadholder, thereby reducing the powers of the Orangists and increasing those of the provinces, chiefly Holland itself. Holland's foremost figure in these years was Johan de Witt Johan de Witt, Council Pensionary (chief minister) to the States General. He guided the country through wars with England and Sweden, concluding a triple alliance between the two countries and the United Provinces in 1668. This was a striking reversal of policy; the economic rivalry between the United Provinces and England had already precipitated two Anglo Anglo-Dutch wars (in 165254 and 166567) and there was much bitterness in Anglo-Dutch relations a popular English pamphlet of the time was t.i.tled (in 165254 and 166567) and there was much bitterness in Anglo-Dutch relations a popular English pamphlet of the time was t.i.tled A Relation Shewing How They [the Dutch] Were First Bred and Descended from a Horse-t.u.r.d Which Was Enclosed in a b.u.t.ter-Bo A Relation Shewing How They [the Dutch] Were First Bred and Descended from a Horse-t.u.r.d Which Was Enclosed in a b.u.t.ter-Box. Much of the ill feeling came from an embarra.s.sing defeat in the second AngloDutch war, when Admiral Michiel de Ruyter Admiral Michiel de Ruyter had sailed up the Thames and caught the English fleet napping. This infuriated England's Charles II, who was quite willing to break with his new-found allies and join a French attack on the Provinces in 1672. The republic was now in deep trouble previous victories had been at sea, and the army, weak and disorganized, could not withstand the onslaught. In panic, the country turned to had sailed up the Thames and caught the English fleet napping. This infuriated England's Charles II, who was quite willing to break with his new-found allies and join a French attack on the Provinces in 1672. The republic was now in deep trouble previous victories had been at sea, and the army, weak and disorganized, could not withstand the onslaught. In panic, the country turned to William III William III of Orange for leadership and Johan de Witt was brutally murdered by a mob of Orangist sympathizers in Den Haag. By 1678 William had defeated the French and made peace with the English and was rewarded (along with his wife Mary, the daughter of Charles I of England) with the English crown ten years later. of Orange for leadership and Johan de Witt was brutally murdered by a mob of Orangist sympathizers in Den Haag. By 1678 William had defeated the French and made peace with the English and was rewarded (along with his wife Mary, the daughter of Charles I of England) with the English crown ten years later.

History The Golden Age The Golden Age The French covet the Low Countries Though King William III had defeated the French, Louis XIV Louis XIV retained designs on the United Provinces and the military pot was kept boiling in a long series of dynastic wars that ranged across northern Europe. In 1700, Charles II of Spain, the last of the Spanish Habsburgs, died childless, bequeathing the Spanish throne and control of the Spanish Netherlands (now Belgium) to Philip of Anjou, Louis' grandson. Louis promptly forced Philip to cede the latter to France, which was, with every justification, construed as a threat to the balance of power by France's neighbours. The retained designs on the United Provinces and the military pot was kept boiling in a long series of dynastic wars that ranged across northern Europe. In 1700, Charles II of Spain, the last of the Spanish Habsburgs, died childless, bequeathing the Spanish throne and control of the Spanish Netherlands (now Belgium) to Philip of Anjou, Louis' grandson. Louis promptly forced Philip to cede the latter to France, which was, with every justification, construed as a threat to the balance of power by France's neighbours. The War of the Spanish Succession War of the Spanish Succession ensued, with the United Provinces, England and Austria forming the ensued, with the United Provinces, England and Austria forming the Triple Alliance Triple Alliance to thwart the French king. The war itself was a haphazard, long-winded affair distinguished by the spectacular victories of the Duke of Marlborough at Blenheim, Ramillies and Malplaquet. It dragged on until the to thwart the French king. The war itself was a haphazard, long-winded affair distinguished by the spectacular victories of the Duke of Marlborough at Blenheim, Ramillies and Malplaquet. It dragged on until the Treaty of Utrecht Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 in which France finally abandoned its claim to the Spanish Netherlands, which reverted to the Austrian Habsburgs (as the Austrian Netherlands). of 1713 in which France finally abandoned its claim to the Spanish Netherlands, which reverted to the Austrian Habsburgs (as the Austrian Netherlands).

However, the fighting had drained the United Provinces' reserves and a slow economic decline began, accelerated by a reactive trend towards conservatism. This in turn reflected the development of an increasingly socially static society, with power and wealth concentrated within a small, self-regarding elite. Furthermore, with the threat of foreign conquest effectively removed, the Dutch ruling cla.s.s divided into two main camps the Orangists Orangists and the pro-French " and the pro-French "Patriots" whose interminable squabbling soon brought political life to a virtual standstill. The situation deteriorated even further in the latter half of the century, and the last few years of the United Provinces present a sorry state of affairs.

History French occupation and the United Kingdom of the Netherlands In 1795 the French French, aided by the Patriots, invaded, setting up the Batavian Republic Batavian Republic and dissolving the United Provinces along with many of the privileges of the richer Dutch merchants. Now part of the Napoleonic empire, the Netherlands were obliged to wage unenthusiastic war with England, and in 1806 Napoleon appointed his brother and dissolving the United Provinces along with many of the privileges of the richer Dutch merchants. Now part of the Napoleonic empire, the Netherlands were obliged to wage unenthusiastic war with England, and in 1806 Napoleon appointed his brother Louis Louis as their king in an attempt to unite the rival Dutch groups under one (notionally independent) ruler. as their king in an attempt to unite the rival Dutch groups under one (notionally independent) ruler. Louis Louis was installed in Amsterdam's town hall, giving it its t.i.tle of Koninklijk Paleis ( was installed in Amsterdam's town hall, giving it its t.i.tle of Koninklijk Paleis (Royal Palace). Louis, however, wasn't willing to allow the Netherlands to become a simple satellite of France; he ignored Napoleon's directives and after just four years of rule was forced to abdicate. The country was then formally incorporated into the French Empire, and for three gloomy years suffered occupation and heavy taxation to finance French military adventures.

Following Napoleon's disastrous retreat from Moscow, the Orangist faction Orangist faction surfaced to exploit weakening French control. In 1813, Frederick William, son of the exiled William V, returned to the country and eight months later, under the terms of the surfaced to exploit weakening French control. In 1813, Frederick William, son of the exiled William V, returned to the country and eight months later, under the terms of the Congress of Vienna Congress of Vienna, was crowned King William I of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands United Kingdom of the Netherlands, incorporating both the old United Provinces and the Austrian Netherlands. A strong-willed man, he spent much of the later part of his life trying to control his disparate kingdom but failed, primarily because of the Protestant north's attempt or perceived attempt to dominate the Catholic south. The southern provinces revolted against his rule and in 1830 the separate Kingdom of Belgium Belgium was proclaimed. During the years of the United Kingdom, Amsterdam's status was dramatically reduced. Previously, the self-governing city, made bold by its wealth, could (and frequently did) act in its own self-interest, at the expense of the nation. From 1815, however, it was integrated within the country, with no more rights than any other city. The seat of government (and the centre for all decision-making) was Den Haag (The Hague), and so it remained after the southern provinces broke away. was proclaimed. During the years of the United Kingdom, Amsterdam's status was dramatically reduced. Previously, the self-governing city, made bold by its wealth, could (and frequently did) act in its own self-interest, at the expense of the nation. From 1815, however, it was integrated within the country, with no more rights than any other city. The seat of government (and the centre for all decision-making) was Den Haag (The Hague), and so it remained after the southern provinces broke away.

History The nineteenth century In the first decades of the nineteenth century, the erosion of Amsterdam's pre-eminent position among Dutch cities was largely camouflaged by its profitable colonial trade with the East Indies (Indonesia). This trade was however hampered by the character of the Zuider Zee Zuider Zee, whose shallows and sandbanks presented all sorts of navigational problems given the increasing size of merchant ships. The Noordhollandskanaal Noordhollandskanaal (North Holland Ca.n.a.l), completed in 1824 and running north from Amsterdam to bypa.s.s the Zuider Zee, made little difference, and it was Rotterdam, strategically placed on the Rhine inlets between the industries of the Ruhr and Britain, that prospered at Amsterdam's expense. Even the 1876 opening of the (North Holland Ca.n.a.l), completed in 1824 and running north from Amsterdam to bypa.s.s the Zuider Zee, made little difference, and it was Rotterdam, strategically placed on the Rhine inlets between the industries of the Ruhr and Britain, that prospered at Amsterdam's expense. Even the 1876 opening of the Nordzeekanaal Nordzeekanaal (North Sea Ca.n.a.l), which provided a direct link west from Amsterdam to the North Sea, failed to push Amsterdam's trade ahead of rival Rotterdam's, though the city did hold on to much of the country's (North Sea Ca.n.a.l), which provided a direct link west from Amsterdam to the North Sea, failed to push Amsterdam's trade ahead of rival Rotterdam's, though the city did hold on to much of the country's shipbuilding industry shipbuilding industry, remnants of which can still be seen at the 't Kromhout shipyard (see "Museum Werf 't Kromhout and De Gooyer windmill"). The city council was also slow to catch on to the possibilities of rail, but finally, in 1889, the opening of Centraal Station Centraal Station put the city back on the main transport routes. Nonetheless, Amsterdam was far from being a backwater; in the second half of the nineteenth century its industries boomed, attracting a new wave of migrants, who were settled outside of the centre in the vast tenements of De Pijp and the Oud Zuid (Old South). These same workers were soon to radicalize the city, supporting a veritable raft of Socialist and Communist politicians. One marker was a reforming put the city back on the main transport routes. Nonetheless, Amsterdam was far from being a backwater; in the second half of the nineteenth century its industries boomed, attracting a new wave of migrants, who were settled outside of the centre in the vast tenements of De Pijp and the Oud Zuid (Old South). These same workers were soon to radicalize the city, supporting a veritable raft of Socialist and Communist politicians. One marker was a reforming Housing Act Housing Act of 1901 that pushed the city council into a concerted effort to clear the city's slums. Even better, the new munic.i.p.al housing was frequently designed to the highest specifications, no more so than under the guidance of the two leading architects of the (broadly Expressionist) of 1901 that pushed the city council into a concerted effort to clear the city's slums. Even better, the new munic.i.p.al housing was frequently designed to the highest specifications, no more so than under the guidance of the two leading architects of the (broadly Expressionist) Amsterdam School Amsterdam School, Michael de Klerk (18841923) and Piet Kramer (18811961). The duo were responsible for the layout of much of the Nieuw Zuid Nieuw Zuid (New South ) in general and the De Dageraad housing project in particular (see " (New South ) in general and the De Dageraad housing project in particular (see "Haarlem").

History The nineteenth century The nineteenth century The Netherlands reconfigures Nationally, Jan Rudolph Thorbecke Jan Rudolph Thorbecke (17981872), the outstanding political figure of the times, formed three ruling cabinets (in 184953, 186266 and 1872) and steered the Netherlands through a profound att.i.tudinal change. The political parties of the late eighteenth century had wanted to resurrect the power and prestige of the seventeenth-century Netherlands; Thorbecke and his liberal allies resigned themselves to the country's reduced status as a small power and eulogized its advantages. For the first time, from about 1850, liberty was seen as a luxury made possible by the country's very lack of power, and the malaise that had long disturbed public life gave way to a positive appreciation of the very narrowness of its national existence. One of the results of Thorbecke's liberalism was a gradual extension of the franchise, culminating in the (17981872), the outstanding political figure of the times, formed three ruling cabinets (in 184953, 186266 and 1872) and steered the Netherlands through a profound att.i.tudinal change. The political parties of the late eighteenth century had wanted to resurrect the power and prestige of the seventeenth-century Netherlands; Thorbecke and his liberal allies resigned themselves to the country's reduced status as a small power and eulogized its advantages. For the first time, from about 1850, liberty was seen as a luxury made possible by the country's very lack of power, and the malaise that had long disturbed public life gave way to a positive appreciation of the very narrowness of its national existence. One of the results of Thorbecke's liberalism was a gradual extension of the franchise, culminating in the Act of Universal Suffrage Act of Universal Suffrage in 1917. in 1917.

History The war years The Netherlands remained neutral during World War I World War I and although it suffered privations as a by-product of the Allied blockade of German war materials, this was offset by the profits many Dutch merchants made by trading with both sides. Similar attempts to remain neutral in and although it suffered privations as a by-product of the Allied blockade of German war materials, this was offset by the profits many Dutch merchants made by trading with both sides. Similar attempts to remain neutral in World War II World War II, however, failed. The Germans invaded Germans invaded on May 10, 1940, and the Netherlands was quickly overrun. Queen Wilhelmina fled to London to set up a government-in-exile, and members of the on May 10, 1940, and the Netherlands was quickly overrun. Queen Wilhelmina fled to London to set up a government-in-exile, and members of the NSB NSB, the Dutch fascist party which had welcomed the invaders, was rewarded with positions of authority. Nevertheless, in the early months of the occupation, life for ordinary Amsterdammers went on pretty much as usual. Even when the first roundups of the Jews Jews began in late 1940, many managed to turn a blind eye, though in February 1941 Amsterdam's newly outlawed Communist Party did organize a widely supported strike, spearheaded by the city's transport and refuse workers, shipbuilders and dockers in support of the Jews. It was a gesture rather than a move to undermine German control, but an important one all the same. Interviewed after the war, one of the leaders summarized it thus: "If just one of Amsterdam's Jews did not feel forgotten and abandoned as he was packed off in a train, then the strike was well worth it." began in late 1940, many managed to turn a blind eye, though in February 1941 Amsterdam's newly outlawed Communist Party did organize a widely supported strike, spearheaded by the city's transport and refuse workers, shipbuilders and dockers in support of the Jews. It was a gesture rather than a move to undermine German control, but an important one all the same. Interviewed after the war, one of the leaders summarized it thus: "If just one of Amsterdam's Jews did not feel forgotten and abandoned as he was packed off in a train, then the strike was well worth it."

As the war progressed, so the German grip got tighter and the Dutch Resistance Resistance stronger, its activities trumpeted by underground newspapers such as stronger, its activities trumpeted by underground newspapers such as Het Parool Het Parool (The Pa.s.sword), which survives in good form today. For the most part, the Resistance focused on industrial and transportation sabotage as well as the forgery of ident.i.ty papers, a real Dutch speciality, but it paid a heavy price with some 23,000 of its fighters and sympathizers losing their lives. The city's Jews (see " (The Pa.s.sword), which survives in good form today. For the most part, the Resistance focused on industrial and transportation sabotage as well as the forgery of ident.i.ty papers, a real Dutch speciality, but it paid a heavy price with some 23,000 of its fighters and sympathizers losing their lives. The city's Jews (see "The Jews in Amsterdam"), however, took the worst punishment. In 1940, Amsterdam's Jewish population, swollen by refugees from Hitler's Germany, was around 140,000, but when the Allies liberated the city in May 1945 only a few thousand were left. The Old Jewish Quarter The Old Jewish Quarter lay deserted, a rare crumb of comfort being the survival of the diary of a young Jewish girl lay deserted, a rare crumb of comfort being the survival of the diary of a young Jewish girl Anne Frank Anne Frank.

History Reconstruction 1945 to 1960 The postwar years postwar years were spent patching up the damage of occupation, though at first progress was hindered by a desperate shortage of food, fuel and building materials. Indeed, things were in such short supply and the winter of 194546 so cold that hundreds of Amsterdammers died of hunger and/or hypothermia, their black cardboard coffins being trundled to ma.s.s graves. Neither did it help that the retreating Germans had blown up all the d.y.k.es and sluices on the North Sea coast at IJmuiden, at the mouth of the Nordzeekanaal. Nevertheless, Amsterdam had not received an aerial pounding like the ones dished out to Rotterdam and Arnhem, and the reconstruction soon built up a head of steam. One feature was the creation of giant suburbs like were spent patching up the damage of occupation, though at first progress was hindered by a desperate shortage of food, fuel and building materials. Indeed, things were in such short supply and the winter of 194546 so cold that hundreds of Amsterdammers died of hunger and/or hypothermia, their black cardboard coffins being trundled to ma.s.s graves. Neither did it help that the retreating Germans had blown up all the d.y.k.es and sluices on the North Sea coast at IJmuiden, at the mouth of the Nordzeekanaal. Nevertheless, Amsterdam had not received an aerial pounding like the ones dished out to Rotterdam and Arnhem, and the reconstruction soon built up a head of steam. One feature was the creation of giant suburbs like Bijlmermeer Bijlmermeer, to the southeast of the city, the last word in early 1960s large-scale residential planning, with low-cost modern housing, play areas and foot and cycle paths.

Two events marred Dutch reconstruction in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The former Dutch colonies Dutch colonies of Java and Sumatra, taken by the j.a.panese at the outbreak of the war, were now ruled by a nationalist republican government that refused to recognize Dutch sovereignty. Following the failure of talks between Den Haag and the nationalists in 1947, the Dutch sent the troops in a colonial enterprise that soon became a b.l.o.o.d.y debacle. International opposition was intense and, after much condemnation and pressure, the Dutch reluctantly surrendered their most important Asian colonies, which were ultimately incorporated as of Java and Sumatra, taken by the j.a.panese at the outbreak of the war, were now ruled by a nationalist republican government that refused to recognize Dutch sovereignty. Following the failure of talks between Den Haag and the nationalists in 1947, the Dutch sent the troops in a colonial enterprise that soon became a b.l.o.o.d.y debacle. International opposition was intense and, after much condemnation and pressure, the Dutch reluctantly surrendered their most important Asian colonies, which were ultimately incorporated as Indonesia Indonesia in 1950. Back at home, tragedy struck on February 1, 1953 when an unusually high tide was pushed over Zeeland's sea defences by a westerly gale, flooding 160 square kilometres of land and drowning over 1800 people. The response was the in 1950. Back at home, tragedy struck on February 1, 1953 when an unusually high tide was pushed over Zeeland's sea defences by a westerly gale, flooding 160 square kilometres of land and drowning over 1800 people. The response was the Delta Project Delta Project, which closed off the western part of the Scheldt and Maas estuaries with ma.s.sive sea d.y.k.es, thereby ensuring the safety of cities to the south of Amsterdam, though Amsterdam itself had already been secured by the completion of the Afsluitdijk Afsluitdijk in 1932. This d.y.k.e closed off the in 1932. This d.y.k.e closed off the Zuider Zee Zuider Zee, turning it into the freshwater IJsselmeer with the Markermeer hived off later.

History The Provos and the 1960s The radical, youthful ma.s.s movements that swept through the West in the 1960s transformed Amsterdam from a middling, rather conservative city into a turbo-charged hotbed of hippy action hippy action. In 1963, one-time window cleaner and magician extraordinaire Jasper Grootveld Jasper Grootveld won celebrity status by painting "K" for won celebrity status by painting "K" for kanker kanker ("cancer") on cigarette billboards throughout the city. Two years later, he proclaimed the statue of the ("cancer") on cigarette billboards throughout the city. Two years later, he proclaimed the statue of the Lieverdje Lieverdje ("Loveable Rascal") on ("Loveable Rascal") on the Spui the Spui the symbol of "tomorrow's addicted consumer" since it had been donated to the city by a cigarette manufacturer and organized large-scale gatherings there once a week. His actions enthused others, most notably the symbol of "tomorrow's addicted consumer" since it had been donated to the city by a cigarette manufacturer and organized large-scale gatherings there once a week. His actions enthused others, most notably Roel van Duyn Roel van Duyn, a philosophy student at Amsterdam University, who a.s.sembled a left-wing-c.u.m-anarchist movement known as the Provos Provos short for short for provocatie provocatie ("provocation"). The Provos partic.i.p.ated in Grootveld's meetings and then proceeded to organize their own street " ("provocation"). The Provos partic.i.p.ated in Grootveld's meetings and then proceeded to organize their own street "happenings", which proved to be fantastically popular among young Amsterdammers. The number of Provos never exceeded about thirty and the group had no coherent structure, but they did have one clear aim to bring points of political or social conflict to public attention by spectacular means. More than anything, they were masters of publicity, and pursued their "games" with a spirit of fun rather than grim political fanaticism. The reaction of the police, however, was aggressive; the first two issues of the Provos' magazine were confiscated and, in July 1965, they intervened at a Sat.u.r.day-night "happening", setting a pattern for future confrontations. The magazine itself contained the Provos' manifesto, a set of policies that later appeared under the t.i.tle "The White Plans". These included the famously popular white bicycle plan white bicycle plan, which proposed that the council ban all cars in the city centre and supply 20,000 bicycles (painted white) for general public use.

History The Provos and the 1960s The Provos and the 1960s Princess Beatrix gets married There were regular police-Provos confrontations throughout 1965, but it was the wedding of Princess Beatrix wedding of Princess Beatrix to Claus von Amsberg on March 10, 1966, that provoked the most serious unrest. Amsberg had served in the German army during World War II and many Netherlanders were deeply offended by the marriage. Consequently, when hundreds took to the streets to protest, pelting the wedding procession with smoke bombs, a huge swathe of Dutch opinion supported them to some degree or another. Amsberg himself got no more than he deserved when he was jeered with the refrain "Give us back the bikes", a reference to the commandeering of hundreds of bikes by the retreating German army in 1945. The wedding over, the next crisis came in June when, much to the horror of the authorities, it appeared that students, workers and Provos were about to combine. In panic, the Hague government ordered the dismissal of Amsterdam's police chief, who was deemed to be losing control, but in the event the Provos had peaked and the workers proved far from revolutionary, settling for arbitration on their various complaints. to Claus von Amsberg on March 10, 1966, that provoked the most serious unrest. Amsberg had served in the German army during World War II and many Netherlanders were deeply offended by the marriage. Consequently, when hundreds took to the streets to protest, pelting the wedding procession with smoke bombs, a huge swathe of Dutch opinion supported them to some degree or another. Amsberg himself got no more than he deserved when he was jeered with the refrain "Give us back the bikes", a reference to the commandeering of hundreds of bikes by the retreating German army in 1945. The wedding over, the next crisis came in June when, much to the horror of the authorities, it appeared that students, workers and Provos were about to combine. In panic, the Hague government ordered the dismissal of Amsterdam's police chief, who was deemed to be losing control, but in the event the Provos had peaked and the workers proved far from revolutionary, settling for arbitration on their various complaints.

History The 1970s and 1980s and the squatters In 1967, the Provos formally dissolved their movement at a happening in the Vondelpark, but many of their supporters promptly moved on to neighbourhood committees neighbourhood committees, set up to oppose the more outlandish development plans of the city council. The most hated scheme by a long chalk was the plan to build a metro line metro line through the Nieuwmarkt to the new suburb of Bijlmermeer, as this involved both wholesale demolitions and compulsory relocations. For six months there were regular confrontations between the police and the protestors and, although the council eventually had its way, the scene was set for more trouble. In particular, the council seemed to many to be unwilling to tackle Amsterdam's acute through the Nieuwmarkt to the new suburb of Bijlmermeer, as this involved both wholesale demolitions and compulsory relocations. For six months there were regular confrontations between the police and the protestors and, although the council eventually had its way, the scene was set for more trouble. In particular, the council seemed to many to be unwilling to tackle Amsterdam's acute housing shortage housing shortage, neglecting the needs of its poorer citizens in favour of business interests. It was this perception that fuelled the squatter movement squatter movement, which coalesced around a handful of symbolic squats. The first major incident came in March 1980 when several hundred police evicted squatters from premises on Vondelstraat Vondelstraat. Afterwards, there was widespread rioting, but this was minor in comparison with the protests of April 30, 1980 the coronation day of Queen Beatrix coronation day of Queen Beatrix when a mixed bag of squatters and leftists vigorously protested both the lavishness of the proceedings and the expense of refurbishing Beatrix's palace in Den Haag. Once again there was widespread rioting and this time it spread to other Dutch cities, though the unrest proved to be short-lived. when a mixed bag of squatters and leftists vigorously protested both the lavishness of the proceedings and the expense of refurbishing Beatrix's palace in Den Haag. Once again there was widespread rioting and this time it spread to other Dutch cities, though the unrest proved to be short-lived.

Now at its peak, Amsterdam's squatting movement boasted around ten thousand activists, many of whom were involved in two more major confrontations with the police the first at the Lucky Luyk Lucky Luyk squat, on Jan Luykenstraat, the second at the squat, on Jan Luykenstraat, the second at the Wyers Wyers building, when, in February 1984, the squatters were forcibly cleared to make way for a Holiday Inn, now the building, when, in February 1984, the squatters were forcibly cleared to make way for a Holiday Inn, now the Crowne Plaza Hotel Crowne Plaza Hotel. The final showdown the Stopera Stopera campaign arrived with the construction of the campaign arrived with the construction of the Muziektheater/Stad