The Psychology of Management Part 21

4. Night schools and study } 5. The Management. }

METHODS OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The Methods of Teaching under Scientific Management are

1. Written, by means of

(a) Instruction Cards telling _what_ is to be done and _how._ (b) Systems, explaining the _why._ (c) Drawings, charts, plans, photographs, ill.u.s.trating methods.

(d) Records made by the worker himself.

2. Oral, the teaching of the Functional Foremen.

3. Object-lessons:

(a) Exhibits.

(b) Working models.

(c) Demonstrations by the Teacher.

(d) Demonstrations by the worker under Supervision.

WORKER A SOURCE OF THESE METHODS.--It should be often stated that, ultimately, the elements of all methods are derived from a study of workers, and that the worker should be enabled to realize this. Only when he feels that he is a part of what is taught, and that the teachers are a _means_ of presenting to him the underlying principles of his own experience, will the worker be able to cooperate with all his energy.

INSTRUCTION CARDS ARE DIRECTIONS.--Instruction Cards are direct instructions for each piece of work, giving, in most concise form, closely defined description of standard practice and directions as to how each element of the standardized task is to be performed. The makers know that they must make their directions clear ultimately, therefore they strive constantly for clearness.

INSTRUCTION CARDS TEACH DIRECTLY AND INDIRECTLY.--These Instruction Cards not only teach the worker directly best to do his work, but also teach him indirectly how to become a leader, demonstrator, teacher and functional foreman. Study of them may lead to an interest in, and a study of, elements, and to preparation for becoming one of the planning department. The excellent method of attack of the Instruction Card cannot fail to have some good effect, even upon such workers as do not consciously note it.[5]

SYSTEMS ARE REASONS AND EXPLANATIONS.--"Systems" or standing orders are collections of detailed reasons for, and explanations of, the decisions embodied in the directions of the Instruction Cards.

There is a system showing the standard practice of each kind of work.

THEY ENLIST THE JUDGMENT OF THE WORKER.--Under really successful management, it is realized that the worker is of an inquiring mind, and that, unless this inquiring tendency of his is recognized, and his curiosity is satisfied, he can never do his best work. Unless the man knows why he is doing the thing, his judgment will never reenforce his work. He may conform to the method absolutely, but his work will not enlist his zeal unless he knows just exactly why he is made to work in the particular manner prescribed. This giving of the "why" to the worker through the system, and thus allowing his reason to follow through all the details, and his judgment to conform absolutely, should silence the objections of those who claim that the worker becomes a machine, and that he has no incentive to think at his work. On the contrary, it will be seen that this method furnishes him with more viewpoints from which he can consider his work.

DRAWINGS, CHARTS, PLANS AND PHOTOGRAPHS MEANS OF MAKING DIRECTIONS CLEARER.--The Instruction Cards are supplemented with drawings, charts, plans and stereoscopic and timed motion photographs,--any or all,--in order to make the directions of the Instruction Cards plainer.

STEREOSCOPIC AND MICRO-MOTION STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS PARTICULARLY USEFUL.--Stereoscopic photographs are especially useful in helping non-visualizers, and in presenting absolutely new work. The value as an educator of stereoscopic and synthesized micro-motion photographs of right methods is as yet but faintly appreciated.

The "timed motion picture," or "micro-motion study photograph"

as it is called, consists of rapidly photographing workers in action accompanied by a specially constructed chronometer that shows such minute divisions of time that motion pictures taken at a speed that will catch the most rapid of human motions without a blur, will show a different time of day in each photograph. The difference in the time in any two pictures gives the elapsed time of the desired motion operation or time unit.

SELF-MADE RECORDS EDUCATIVE.--The educative value of the worker's making his own records has never been sufficiently appreciated. Dr. Taylor insists upon this procedure wherever possible.[6] Not only does the worker learn from the actual marking in of the s.p.a.ces reserved for him, but also he learns to feel himself a part of the record making division of the management. This proof of the "square deal," in recording his output, and of the confidence in him, cannot fail to enlist his cooperation.

ORAL INSTRUCTION COMES FROM THE FUNCTIONAL FOREMEN.--The Functional Foremen are teachers whose business it is to explain, translate and supplement the various written instructions when the worker either does not understand them, does not know how to follow them, or makes a mistake in following them.

ORAL INSTRUCTION HAS ITS FITTING PLACE UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Oral instruction under Scientific Management has at least four advantages over such instruction under Traditional Management.

1. The Instructor is capable of giving instruction.

2. The Instructor's specialty is giving instruction.

3. The instruction is a supplement to written instructions.

4. The instruction comes at the exact time that the learner needs it.

TEACHER, OR FUNCTIONAL FOREMAN, SHOULD UNDERSTAND PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY.--The successful teacher must understand the minds of his men, and must be able to present his information in such a way that it will be grasped readily. Such knowledge of psychology and pedagogy as he possesses he may acquire almost unconsciously

1. from the teaching of others, 2. from his study of Instruction Cards and Systems, 3. from actual practice in teaching.

The advantages of a study of psychology itself, as it applies to the field of teaching in general, and of teaching in the industries in particular, are apparent. Such study must, in the future, become more and more prevalent.

ADVANTAGE OF FUNCTIONAL FOREMAN-TEACHER OVER TEACHER IN THE SCHOOLS.--The Functional Foreman-teacher has an advantage over the teacher in the school in that the gap between him and those he teaches is not so great. He knows, because he remembers, exactly how the worker must have his information presented to him. This gap is narrowed by functionalizing the oral teaching, by using it merely as a supplement to the written teaching, and by supplementing it with object-lessons.

TEACHER MUST HAVE PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE TRADE HE IS TO TEACH.--The teacher must have an intimate practical knowledge of the art or trade that he is to teach. The most profound knowledge of Psychology will never be a subst.i.tute for the mastery of the trade, as a condition precedent to turning out the best craftsmen. This is provided for by securing teachers from the ranks of the workers.[7]

HE MUST HAVE A THOROUGH KNOWLEDGE OF THE STANDARDS.--He must have more than the traditional knowledge of the trade that he is to teach; he must have also the knowledge that comes only from scientific investigation of his trade. This knowledge is ready and at hand, in the standards of Scientific Management that are available to all for study.

HE MUST BE CONVINCED OF THE VALUE OF THE METHODS HE TEACHES.--The teacher must also have an intimate acquaintance with the records of output of the method he is to teach as compared with those of methods held in high esteem by the believer in the old methods; for it is a law that no teacher can be efficient in teaching any method in which he does not believe, any more than a salesman can do his best work when he does not implicitly believe in the goods that he is selling.

HE MUST BE AN ENTHUSIAST.--The best teacher is the one who is an enthusiast on the subject of the work itself, who can cause contagion or imitation of his state of mind, by love of the problems themselves.

SUCH ENTHUSIASM CONTAGIOUS.--It is the contagion of this enthusiasm that will always create a demand for teachers, no matter how perfect instruction cards may become. There is no form or device of management that does away with good men, and in the teacher, as here described, is conserved the personal element of the successful, popular Traditional foreman.

VALUABLE TEACHER INTERESTS MEN IN THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The most valuable teacher is one who can arouse his pupils to such a state of interest in the economic values of the methods of Scientific Management, that all other objects that would ordinarily distract or hold their attention will be banished from their minds. They will then remember each step as it is introduced, and they will be consumed with interest and curiosity to know what further steps can be introduced, that will still further eliminate waste.

OBJECT-LESSON MAY BE "WORKING MODELS."--The object-lesson may be a "fixed exhibit" or a "working model," "a process in different stages," or "a micro-motion study film" of the work that is to be done. Successful and economical teaching may be done with such models, which are especially valuable where the workers do not speak the same language as the teacher, where many workers are to perform exactly similar work, or where the memory, the visualizing and the constructive imagination, are so poor that the models must be referred to constantly. Models naturally appeal best to those who take in information easiest through the eyes.

OBJECT-LESSONS MAY BE DEMONSTRATIONS BY THE TEACHER.--The teacher may demonstrate the method manually to the worker, or by means of films showing synthesized right methods on the motion-picture screen. This, also, is a successful method of teaching those who speak a different language, or of explaining new work,--though it calls for a better memory than does the "working model," The model, however, shows desired results; the demonstration, desired methods.

DEMONSTRATION METHOD CHIEF METHOD OF TEACHING BY FOREMEN.--The manual demonstration method is the chief method of teaching the workmen by the foremen under Scientific Management, and no method is rated as standard that cannot be successfully demonstrated by the teacher, at any time, on request.

WORKER MAY DEMONSTRATE UNDER SUPERVISION.--If the worker is of that type that can learn only by actually doing the work himself, he is allowed to demonstrate the method under supervision of the teacher.[8]

TEACHING ALWAYS AVAILABLE UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under Scientific Management all of these forms of teaching are available constantly. The instruction card and accompanying ill.u.s.trations are given to the worker before he starts to work, and are so placed that he can consult them easily at any time during the work. As, also, if object-lessons are used, they are given before work commences, and repeated when necessary.

The teacher is constantly available for oral instruction, and the systems are constantly available for consultation.

METHODS OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PSYCHOLOGICALLY RIGHT.--In order to prove that teaching under Scientific Management is most valuable, it is necessary to show that it is psychologically right, that it leads to mental development and improvement. Under Scientific Management, teaching,--

1. uses and trains the senses.

2. induces good habits of thinking and acting.

3. stimulates attention, 4. provides for valuable a.s.sociations.

5. a.s.sists and strengthens the memory.

6. develops the imagination.

7. develops judgment.

8. utilizes suggestion.

9. utilizes "native reactions."

10. develops the will.

TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT TRAINS THE SENSES.-- Scientific Management, in teaching the man, aims to train all of his senses possible. Not only does each man show an apt.i.tude for some special sense training,[9] but at certain times one sense may be stronger than another; for example, the sense of hearing, as is ill.u.s.trated by the saying, "The patient in the hospital knoweth when his doctor cometh by the fall of his footsteps, yet when he recovereth he knoweth not even his face." At the time that a certain thing becomes of interest, and becomes particularly interesting to one sense, that sense is particularly keen and developed.

Scientific Management cannot expect, without more detailed psychological data than is as yet available, to utilize these periods of sense predominance adequately. It can, and does, aim to utilize such senses as are trained, and to supply defects of training of the other senses.

SUCH TRAINING PARTIALLY DETERMINES THE QUALITY OF THE WORK.--The importance of sense training can scarcely be overestimated. Through his senses, the worker takes in the directions as to what he is to do, and on the accuracy with which his senses record the impressions made upon them, depends the mental model which he ultimately follows, and the accuracy of his criticism of the resulting physical object of his work. Through the senses, the worker sets his own task, and inspects his work.

SENSE TRAINING INFLUENCES INCREASE OF EFFICIENCY.--With the training of the senses the possibility of increased efficiency increases. As any sense becomes trained, the minimum visable is reduced, and more accurate impressions become possible.[10] They lead to more rapid work, by eliminating time necessary for judgment.

The bricklayer develops a fineness of touch that allows him to dispense with sight in some parts of his work.