The Progress of Ethnology Part 8

The history we have already given of the progress made in decyphering these characters applies exclusively to one of the varieties on the tablets of Persia. The inscriptions on these monuments are almost invariably repeated in three sets of characters, and doubtless in three different languages. The characters of what appears in each case to be the primary or original inscription, of which the others are translations, are of the simplest construction, and consequently were the first to attract the attention of decypherers, and to yield to their efforts. The language in which they are written has been found to exhibit close affinities both to the Sanscrit and to the Zend, and is now termed by philologists the Old Persian. The system of writing is alphabetic, that is to say, each character represents a single articulate sound; whereas that of the other two species is at least in a great measure syllabic, which renders the task of decyphering them much more difficult.

For our knowledge of the second variety of characters on the Persian trilingual tablets, we are indebted to the labors and sagacity of Professor Westergaard.[80] These characters had remained entirely undecyphered until the first kind had been completely made out. It was evident that the inscriptions in the second kind of character were but a translation of those in the first; and with this supposition, this learned Orientalist began the task of decyphering, by identifying the proper names Darius, Hystaspes, Cyrus, Xerxes, Persians, Ionians, &c., which frequently occur in the inscriptions decyphered by Major Rawlinson. Having obtained these, he next a.n.a.lyzed each and ascertained the phonetic values of the several characters of which they are composed. By this means, he was enabled to construct an alphabet. He next examined the introductory words and the t.i.tles of the sovereigns, and finally the entire inscriptions, all of which he has most satisfactorily made out, and with them has reconstructed the language in which they are written. In his learned and elaborate article detailing the process of this discovery, Professor Westergaard gives a systematic cla.s.sification of the characters, one hundred in number, of which seventy-four are syllabic, twenty-four alphabetic, and two signs of division between words. The character of the language, which for convenience sake he terms Median, he does not pretend to decide, though he considers that it belongs to the Scythian rather than to the j.a.phetic cla.s.s of languages; in which opinion Major Rawlinson coincides. The Oriental Journal alluded to in the second note to p. 90, contains several learned papers by Professors Westergaard and La.s.sen, on the arrow-headed inscriptions.

In the third sort of Persepolitan characters, termed the Achaemenian Babylonian, some advances have been made by Major Rawlinson. The contents of the other portions of these tablets being known, he pursued the course adopted by Professor Westergaard, namely that of identifying the groups of characters corresponding with the proper names in the other inscriptions. He has thus been enabled to ascertain the phonetic values of a large number of characters which must in time lead to a knowledge of the rest of the alphabet. A beginning in this direction was also made by Professor Grotefend, who in his Memoirs of 1837 and 1840, singles out and places in juxtaposition the names of Cyrus, Hystaspes, Darius and Xerxes, in the first and third species of Persepolitan writing. There is every reason to hope that the labors of the three accomplished Oriental scholars, Rawlinson, La.s.sen, and Westergaard, which have been so far crowned with success, will add to their fame by making out the characters and language of this species of writing also.

A high degree of interest is attached to it, not only on account of the information it embodies, but in regard to the nation to which it is a.s.signable.

It will be recollected, that besides these three sorts of Persepolitan writing, there are two other distinct cla.s.ses of arrow-head characters, called Babylonian and a.s.syrian. Little or nothing has yet been accomplished towards decyphering them; which is owing to the fact that they are of a very complicated nature, and that they have hitherto been found alone, that is to say not accompanied by a version in any other language or character. A Parisian savant, M.J. Lowenstern, who has applied himself to the study of the a.s.syrian tablets, published in 1845 an Essay on the monument recently discovered by M. Botta at Khorsabad near Mosul, in which he thinks he has made out the groups which stand for the words _great king_, and also several alphabetical characters.

Further investigations can alone determine whether or not his conclusions are correct.

It will be necessary to state some of the historical facts brought to light by the labors of Major Rawlinson, to which we have alluded. The great tablet at Behistun relates exclusively to Darius. "To this monarch," says Major Rawlinson, "insatiable in his thirst of conquest, magnificent in his tastes, and possessed of an unlimited power, we are indebted for all that is most valuable in the palaeography of Persia.

Imbued, as it appears, with an ardent pa.s.sion for monumental fame, he was not content to inscribe the palaces of his foundation at Persepolis with a legend commemorative of their erection, or with prayers invoking the guardianship of Ormuzd and his angels, but he lavished an elaborate workmanship on historic and geographic records in various quarters of his empire, which evince considerable political forethought, an earnest regard for truth, and an ambition to transmit the glories of his reign to future generations, to guide their conduct and invite their emulation. At Persepolis, the high place of Persian power, he aspired to elevate the moral feelings of his countrymen, and to secure their future dominancy in Asia, by displaying to them their superiority over the feudatory provinces of the empire,[81] while upon the sacred rock of Baghistan, he addressed himself in the style of an historian, to collect the genealogical traditions of his race, to describe the extent and power of his kingdom, and to relate, with a perspicuous brevity worthy of imitation, the leading incidents of his reign. His grave relation of the means by which, under the care and favor of a beneficent Providence, the crown of Persia first fell into his hands, and of the manner in which he subsequently established his authority, by the successive overthrow of the rebels who opposed him, contrasts strongly but most favorably with the usual emptiness of Oriental hyperbole."

The following are some of the translations from the great inscription at Behistun, which embraces upwards of four hundred lines in the arrow-headed characters. In Major Rawlinson's Memoir, are given fac-similes of the original inscriptions, a transcription of the same in Roman letters with an interlineal translation in Latin, and a translation in English. Accompanying these, is a critical commentary on each line, together with notes, rendering the whole as clear as possible.

"I am Darius, the great king, the king of kings, the king of Persia, the king of (the dependent) provinces, the son of Hystaspes, the grandson of Arsames, the Achaemenian.

"Says Darius the King:--My father was Hystaspes; of Hystaspes, the father was Arsames; of Arsames, the father was Ariyaramnes; of Ariyaramnes, the father was Teispes; of Teispes, the father was Achaemenes.

"Says Darius the King:--On that account, we have been called Achaemenians: from antiquity we have been unsubdued; from antiquity those of our race have been kings.

"Says Darius the King:--There are eight of my race who have been kings before me, I am the ninth; for a very long time we have been kings.

"Says Darius the King:--By the grace of Ormuzd, I am king; Ormuzd has granted me the empire.

"Says Darius the King:--These are the countries which have fallen into my hands--by the grace of Ormuzd, I have become king of them--Persia, Susiana, Babylonia, a.s.syria, Arabia, Egypt; those which are of the sea, Sparta and Ionia; Armenia, Cappadocia, Parthia, Zarangea, Aria, Chorasmia, Bactria, Sogdiana, the Sacae, the Sattagydes, Arachosia, and the Mecians; the total amount being twenty-one countries.

"Says Darius the King:--These are the countries which have come to me; by the grace of Ormuzd, they have become subject to me--they have brought tribute to me. That which has been said unto them by me, both by night and by day, it has been performed by them.

"Says Darius the King:--Ormuzd has granted me the empire. Ormuzd has brought help to me until I have gained this empire. By the grace of Ormuzd, I hold this empire.

"Says Darius the King:-- ... He who was named Cambyses, the son of Cyrus of our race, he was here king before me. There was of that Cambyses a brother named Bartius; he was of the same father and mother as Cambyses. Cambyses slew this Bartius. When Cambyses slew that Bartius, the troubles of the state ceased which Bartius had excited. Then Cambyses proceeded to Egypt. When Cambyses had gone to Egypt, the state became heretical; then the lie became abounding in the land, both in Persia and in Media, and in the other provinces."

He then goes on to speak of the rebellions in his dominions after the death of Cambyses, of the Magian who declared himself king, and that no one dared to resist him. He continues:

"every one was standing obediently around the Magian, until I arrived. Then I abode in the worship of Ormuzd; Ormuzd brought help to me. On the 10th day of the month Bagayadish, I slew the Magian and the chief men who were his followers. By the grace of Ormuzd, I became king; Ormuzd granted me the sceptre."

He then says, he "established his race on the throne, as in the days of old," prohibited the sacrificial worship introduced by the Magian, and restored the old families to office,--all of which was accomplished by the aid of Ormuzd. The people of Susiana and Babylon then became rebellious. He slew the leader of the former.

"Says Darius the King:--Then I proceeded to Babylon against that Nat.i.tabirus, who was called Nabokhadrosser (Nebuchadnezzar). The forces of Nat.i.tabirus held the Tigris; there they had come and they had boats. Then I placed a detachment on rafts. I brought the enemy into difficulty; I a.s.saulted the enemy's position. Ormuzd brought help to me; by the grace of Ormuzd, I succeeded in pa.s.sing the Tigris. Then I entirely defeated the army of that Nat.i.tabirus. On the 27th day of the month of Atriyata, then it was that we thus fought."

Darius then continued his march to Babylon, where he was met by the army of Nat.i.tabirus; he gave him battle and defeated him, driving his army into the water. He then took Babylon. It would appear from what this monarch relates, that he had a pretty rebellious set of subjects, who took advantage of his absence at Babylon. The inscription continues.

"Says Darius the King:--whilst I was at Babylon, these are the countries that revolted against me; Persis, Susiana, Media, a.s.syria, Armenia, Parthia, Margiana, Sattagydia and Sacia."

He then gives the names of the rebellious leaders and of the officers sent to subjugate them; the forts, villages, or cities, where battles were fought; the day of the month when they took place, and the result, in every case, by the help of Ormuzd. One example will suffice. After speaking of the revolt of Armenia, the inscription continues.

"Says Darius the King:--Then Dada.r.s.es by name, an Armenian, one of my servants, him I sent to Armenia. I thus said to him: 'Greeting to thee, the rebel state that does not obey me, smite it.' Then Dada.r.s.es marched. When he reached Armenia, then the rebels having collected came before Dada.r.s.es arraying their battle ... by name, a village of Armenia, there they engaged.

Ormuzd brought help to me; by the grace of Ormuzd, my forces entirely defeated that rebel army. On the 8th of the month Thurawahara, then it was a battle was fought by them."

In this manner we have the whole history of the reign of Darius king of Persia, who filled the throne 550 B.C. And it may truly be said that no monument of remote antiquity which has been preserved to modern times, at all equals it in importance. The inscriptions of Egypt are far more ancient, but consist of fragments, which, excepting the tables of kings, do not throw much light on history. Nothing is more interesting in the details given by the Persian king of his successes, than his acknowledgment of an overruling power, a Supreme Being, who protected him and aided him in all his battles. From the closing part of this remarkable tablet, which consists of twenty paragraphs, we select the following.

"Says Darius the King:--This is what I have done. By the grace of Ormuzd have I achieved the performance of the whole. Thou whoever hereafter may peruse this tablet, let it be known to thee, that which has been done by me, that it has not been falsely related.

"Says Darius the King:--Ormuzd is my witness, that this record I have faithfully made of the performance of the whole.

"Says Darius the King:--By the grace of Ormuzd, there is much else that has been done by me that upon this tablet has not been inscribed.... If thou publish this tablet to the world, Ormuzd shall be a friend to thee, and may thy offspring be numerous.

"Says Darius the King:--If thou shalt conceal this record, thou shalt not thyself be recorded; may Ormuzd be thy enemy, and mayest thou be childless.

"Says Darius the King:--As long as thou mayest behold this tablet and these figures, thou mayest not dishonor them; and if from injury thou shalt preserve them, may Ormuzd be a friend to thee, and may thy offspring be numerous, and mayest thou be long lived, and that which thou mayest do may Ormuzd bless for thee in after times."

The great inscription from which we have made these extracts, is sculptured in three languages, and in three different forms of the arrow-headed character, the particulars of which have been stated. There are a few imperfections and cracks in the stone which made certain words and sentences unintelligible; these will be corrected when the other two inscriptions are decyphered. In the midst of these records is a piece of sculpture in relief, representing Darius followed by two of his officers, with his foot upon a man, who raises his hands before him, and nine other figures representing the rebellious leaders whom he had severally conquered. They are connected by a rope around their necks and have their hands tied behind, and are probably portraits of the persons they represent. Beneath each is engraved his name, as in the extract given.

"This Nat.i.tabirus was an impostor: he thus declared, I am Nabokhadrosser, the son of Nabonidas; I am king of Babylon."

The discoveries of Professor Westergaard, to whom we are indebted for the key to the second or Median form of the arrow-headed character, require notice. This accomplished Orientalist, on his return from an archaeological tour in India and Persia, under the patronage of the king of Denmark, brought with him, among other literary treasures, copies of a great number of inscriptions in the arrow-headed character. While in Persepolis he carefully examined all the inscriptions which those wonderful ruins still retain. Those which had already been published, he accurately compared with the original monuments, and the remainder he copied entire. This gentleman went thoroughly furnished with all the preparatory knowledge that could be gained in Europe to ensure success.

He had shown himself by his publications to be an excellent Sanscrit scholar; besides which he had acquired as complete a knowledge of the Zend language as it is possible to do at present, and was well acquainted with all that had been effected in the way of decyphering the inscriptions. Having thus so greatly the advantage of his predecessors, Niebuhr, Ker Porter, and Rich, it is not to be wondered at that his transcripts are proportionably more accurate and complete.

It has long been known that all the inscriptions at Persepolis are triple, like those on the Behistun tablets, before described. Those of the first or simplest variety, have all been translated by Professor La.s.sen,[82] to whom Professor Westergaard transmitted them. Accompanying his translations are critical and explanatory remarks, proving conclusively the correctness of his version. The inscriptions at and near Persepolis, relate to Xerxes. They do not possess the historical value that the tablets of his father do on the rocks of Behistun, but consist of praises of Ormuzd for blessings he had received, and of himself for the additions he made to the royal palace at Persepolis. The following is a translation of an inscription on the wall of an immense portal at Nakshi Regib, two miles from Persepolis.[83]

"Ormuzd (is) the great G.o.d. He created this earth; he created the heavens; he created mortals; he created the fortune of mortals. He made king Xerxes the only king of many, the only emperor of many.

"I Xerxes (am) the great king, the king of kings, the king of realms inhabited by many nations; the sustainer, the author of this great land; the son of king Darius, the Achaemenide.

"I (am) the n.o.ble Xerxes, the great king. By the will of Ormuzd, I have built this portal to be entered by the people.

Let the Persians abide, let them congregate under this portal, and in this palace--the palace which my father built for abiding in. By the will of Ormuzd we built them.

"I (am) the n.o.ble king Xerxes. Protect me O Ormuzd; and also this kingdom, and this my palace, and my father's palace protect, O admirable Ormuzd."

No inscriptions have yet been found in Persia of Artaxerxes, the first son of Xerxes. A vase, however, was discovered at Venice by Sir J.G.

Wilkinson, bearing an inscription in hieroglyphics, and in the three species of arrow-headed characters so common in Persia. This vase and its inscriptions have been examined by M. Letronne and M. Longperier, who do not hesitate to ascribe it to Artaxerxes the first, or Longima.n.u.s, whose names and t.i.tles have been made out both in the hieroglyphics and cuneiform characters.[84]

An inscription of great historical interest of Artaxerxes the third, has been found at Persepolis.[85] It is in only one species of the Achaemenian writing, and is noticed by Prof. Westergaard as exhibiting "a most remarkable change and decay which the language must have undergone in the interval between the reigns of Xerxes and this monarch." In a philological point of view, this fact is interesting as showing so early a decline of the Persian language.

But the most important part of this inscription consists of the genealogy of Artaxerxes the third, from Arsama, the Greek Arsames, the father of Hystaspes, completely agreeing with that given by Grecian historians. In this as well as in all the other inscriptions thus far decyphered, Ormuzd is invariably invoked; he is called upon to aid them, and the several sovereigns acknowledge their grat.i.tude to him as to an all-protecting Providence for the blessings received.

NINEVEH. We have received from M. Mohl, of Paris, an account of the researches of MM. Botta and Flandin,[86] on or near the site of ancient Nineveh.

This volume contains letters from M. Botta, giving the details of his discoveries, accompanied by fifty-five plates of sculptures, statues, and inscriptions. He penetrated into the interior of a large mound, where he found a series of halls and chambers, the walls of which were covered with paintings and relievos representing historical events, and scenes ill.u.s.trating the manners and customs of the a.s.syrians. The drawings and sculptures exhibit a higher state of art than the monuments of Egypt. The figures are remarkably well drawn, both as it regards the anatomy and the costumes. The men appear to be more athletic than the Egyptians--they wear long hair combed smooth over the top of the head, and curled behind. The beard is also long and always curled. Their dresses are exceedingly rich and profuse in ornaments and tr.i.m.m.i.n.gs.

Ear-rings, bracelets, and armlets, of various forms and elaborately wrought, are seen on most of the figures both of the men and women. The discoveries made by M. Botta have induced others to explore the ground in that vicinity. An English traveller, Mr. Layard, has recently opened a mound many times larger than that excavated by the French. "It contains the remains of a palace, a part of which, like that at Khorsabad, appears to have been burnt. There is a vast series of chambers, all built with marble, and covered with sculptures and inscriptions. The inscriptions are in the cuneiform character, of the cla.s.s usually termed Babylonian. It is possible that this edifice was built at an epoch prior to the overthrow of the a.s.syrian Empire by the Medes and Babylonians under Cyaxares. Many of the sculptures discovered by Mr. Layard are, even in the smallest details, as sharp and fresh as though they had been chiselled yesterday. Among them is a pair of winged lions with human heads, about twelve feet high. They form the entrance to a temple. The execution of these figures is admirable, and gives the highest idea of the knowledge and civilization of the a.s.syrians. There are many monsters of this kind, lions and bulls. The other reliefs consist of various divinities, some with eagles' heads--others entirely human but winged--with battle-pieces and sieges."[87]

Other letters from Mr. Layard of a later date than that just mentioned, announce new discoveries. "Another mine has been opened at Nimroud; and every stroke of the pick-axe brings new wonders to light." Old Nineveh, whose very existence had become little better than a vague historic dream, is astonishing the world by her buildings her sculptures, and her many thousands of inscriptions, which have been brought to light by the explorations of Mr. Layard.[88] "He has opened fourteen chambers and uncovered two hundred and fifty sculptured slabs. The grand entrance previously described led him into a hall above two hundred and fifty feet long and thirty broad--entirely built of slabs of marble covered with sculptures. The side walls are ornamented with bas-reliefs of the highest interest--battles, sieges, lion-hunts, &c.; many of them in the finest state of preservation, and all executed with extraordinary spirit. They afford a complete history of the military art of the a.s.syrians; and prove their intimate knowledge of many of those machines of war, whose invention is attributed to the Greeks and Romans--such as the battering ram, the tower moving on wheels, the catapult, &c. Nothing can exceed the beauty and elegance of the forms of various arms, swords, daggers, bows, spears, &c. In this great hall are several entrances, each formed by winged lions, or winged bulls.[89] These lead to other chambers; which again branch off into a hundred ramifications. Every chamber is built of marble slabs covered with sculptures or inscriptions." The excavations thus far only extend to one corner of a great mound, the largest on the plain, measuring about one thousand eight hundred feet by nine hundred. The wonders that may be brought to light from a more complete survey of this vast heap of ruins, will be looked forward to with intense interest.

All are familiar with the accounts of the building of this city by a.s.shur, (whence the name a.s.syria), and of the first empire under Nimrod. In this short record we have the first traces of political inst.i.tutions and of great cities. They burst upon us, and as suddenly disappear from the world's history for more than a thousand years. A learned author of the last century[90] has endeavored to throw distrust on all that the Greek writers have written about these countries, because in the Persian historians he could not recognise the great Cyrus and other prominent characters which fill important places in the Grecian annals. But the revelations already made through the arrow-headed inscriptions must remove these doubts, as they substantiate in a remarkable degree the a.s.sertions of the Greek writers. The observations of a learned Orientalist are so well adapted to this subject that I cannot forbear quoting them. "The formation of mighty and civilized states being admitted even by our strictest chronologers to have taken place at least twenty-five centuries before our era, it can but appear extraordinary, even after taking into account violent revolutions, that of so mult.i.tudinous and great existences, only such scanty doc.u.ments have come down to us. But, strange to say, whenever a testimony has escaped the destruction of time, instead of being greeted with a benevolent though discerning curiosity, the unexpected stranger is approached with mistrustful scrutiny, his voice is stifled with severe rebuke, his credentials discarded with scorn, and by a predetermined and stubborn condemnation, resuscitating antiquity is repelled into the tomb of oblivion."[91]

A journey of much interest was undertaken by Dr. Robert in 18_3, who was directed by the French government to continue, in the west of the Himalaya range and the high region adjacent, the geographical, physical, and ethnographical observations which had been begun by M. Jaquemont.

The latest accounts from this intrepid traveller left him in the inaccessible valleys of Chinese Tartary, from whence it was his intention to pa.s.s through Turkestan, for the purpose of entering China on the north.[92]