The Pleasure Instinct Part 9

149 Considering this, it is thought that fluctuating asymmetry Considering this, it is thought that fluctuating asymmetry Moller, AP, Swaddle, JP (1997) Moller, AP, Swaddle, JP (1997) Developmental Stability and Evolution Developmental Stability and Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England.

149 Increases are a.s.sociated with decrements in biological fitness Increases are a.s.sociated with decrements in biological fitness For an excellent review, see Thornhill, R, Moller, AP (1997) Developmental stability, disease and medicine. For an excellent review, see Thornhill, R, Moller, AP (1997) Developmental stability, disease and medicine. Biological Reviews Biological Reviews 72: 497-548. 72: 497-548.

149 Insofar as fluctuating asymmetry has been found to be partly heritable Insofar as fluctuating asymmetry has been found to be partly heritable Ibid.; Moller, AP (1990) Fluctuating asymmetry in male s.e.xual ornaments may reliably reveal quality. Ibid.; Moller, AP (1990) Fluctuating asymmetry in male s.e.xual ornaments may reliably reveal quality. Animal Behavior, Animal Behavior, 40: 1185-1187;Watson, PJ,Thornhill, R (1994) Fluctuating asymmetry and s.e.xual selection. 40: 1185-1187;Watson, PJ,Thornhill, R (1994) Fluctuating asymmetry and s.e.xual selection. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 9: 21-25. 9: 21-25.

149 Indeed, in the majority of species tested Indeed, in the majority of species tested Moller, AP, Thornhill, R (1998) Bilateral symmetry and s.e.xual selection: a meta-a.n.a.lysis. Moller, AP, Thornhill, R (1998) Bilateral symmetry and s.e.xual selection: a meta-a.n.a.lysis. American Naturalist, American Naturalist, 151: 174-192. 151: 174-192.

149 In a large-scale review of sixty-five In a large-scale review of sixty-five Ibid. Ibid.

150 A second important finding was that in most species A second important finding was that in most species In general, secondary s.e.xual traits exhibit greater variability in asymmetry than other traits. Moller, AP, Pomiankowski, A (1993) Fluctuating asymmetry and s.e.xual selection. In general, secondary s.e.xual traits exhibit greater variability in asymmetry than other traits. Moller, AP, Pomiankowski, A (1993) Fluctuating asymmetry and s.e.xual selection. Genetica, Genetica, 89: 267-279. 89: 267-279.

150 For instance, in the dozen or so studies of humans For instance, in the dozen or so studies of humans Moller, AP, Thornhill, R (1998) Bilateral symmetry and s.e.xual selection: a meta-a.n.a.lysis. Moller, AP, Thornhill, R (1998) Bilateral symmetry and s.e.xual selection: a meta-a.n.a.lysis. American Naturalist, American Naturalist, 151: 174-192. 151: 174-192.

153 They will also visually track a line drawing of a face They will also visually track a line drawing of a face Maurer, D, Young, R (1983) Maurer, D, Young, R (1983) Newborns' following of natural and distorted arrangements of facial features. Infant Behavior and Development, Infant Behavior and Development, 6: 127-131. 153 6: 127-131. 153 Right out of the womb, babies have a preference Right out of the womb, babies have a preference Bushnell, IWR, Sai, F, et al. (1989) Neonatal recognition of mother's face. Bushnell, IWR, Sai, F, et al. (1989) Neonatal recognition of mother's face. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7: 3-15. 7: 3-15.

153 By day three, infants can mimic certain facial By day three, infants can mimic certain facial Meltzoff, AN, Moore, MK (1977) Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. Meltzoff, AN, Moore, MK (1977) Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. Science, Science, 198: 75-78. 198: 75-78.

153 Add a few months and infants develop Add a few months and infants develop Barrera, ME, Maurer, D (1981) Discrimination of stranger by the three-month-old. Barrera, ME, Maurer, D (1981) Discrimination of stranger by the three-month-old. Child Development, Child Development, 52: 558-563. 52: 558-563.

153 and detect different emotional expressions and detect different emotional expressions Schwartz, GM, Izard, CE, et al. (1985) The 5-month-old's ability to discriminate facial expressions of emotion. Schwartz, GM, Izard, CE, et al. (1985) The 5-month-old's ability to discriminate facial expressions of emotion. Infant Behavior and Development, Infant Behavior and Development, 8: 65-77. 8: 65-77.

153 The "face as a kin recognition device" theory The "face as a kin recognition device" theory See one of my favorite books for an excellent review: Konner, M (2001) See one of my favorite books for an excellent review: Konner, M (2001) The Tangled Wing: Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit The Tangled Wing: Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit. Henry Holt and Company, New York.

153 For instance, newborns have a preference for stimuli For instance, newborns have a preference for stimuli Bornstein, MH, Ferdinandsen, K, et al. (1981) Perception of symmetry in infancy. Bornstein, MH, Ferdinandsen, K, et al. (1981) Perception of symmetry in infancy. Developmental Psychology, Developmental Psychology, 17: 82-86. 17: 82-86.

154 They also prefer objects that are smooth They also prefer objects that are smooth Langlois, JH, Roggman, RJ, et al. (1987) Infant preferences for attractive faces: Rudiments of a stereotype? Langlois, JH, Roggman, RJ, et al. (1987) Infant preferences for attractive faces: Rudiments of a stereotype? Developmental Psychology, Developmental Psychology, 23: 363-369; McCall, RB, Melsom, WH (1970) Complexity, contour, and area as determinants of attention in infants. 23: 363-369; McCall, RB, Melsom, WH (1970) Complexity, contour, and area as determinants of attention in infants. Developmental Psychology, Developmental Psychology, 3: 343-349. 3: 343-349.

154 In a series of compelling studies, psychologist Judith In a series of compelling studies, psychologist Judith Ibid., Langlois, Roggman, et al. Ibid., Langlois, Roggman, et al.

155 Langlois found that infants spent significantly more Langlois found that infants spent significantly more Ibid. Ibid.

155 This result has since been replicated and extended This result has since been replicated and extended Langlois, JH, Ritter, JM, et al. (1991) Facial diversity and infant preferences for attractive faces. Langlois, JH, Ritter, JM, et al. (1991) Facial diversity and infant preferences for attractive faces. Developmental Psychology, Developmental Psychology, 27: 79-84. 27: 79-84.

155 Cross-cultural studies have been done Cross-cultural studies have been done See, for example, Jones, D, Hill, K (1993) Criteria for facial attractiveness in five populations. See, for example, Jones, D, Hill, K (1993) Criteria for facial attractiveness in five populations. Human Nature, Human Nature, 4: 271- 295; Wagatsuma, E, Kleinke, CL (1979) Ratings of facial beauty by Korean-Americans and Caucasian females. 4: 271- 295; Wagatsuma, E, Kleinke, CL (1979) Ratings of facial beauty by Korean-Americans and Caucasian females. Journal of Social Psychology, Journal of Social Psychology, 109: 299-300. 109: 299-300.

156 Studies by evolutionary biologists and psychologists Studies by evolutionary biologists and psychologists Symons, D (1979) Symons, D (1979) The Evolution of Human s.e.xuality The Evolution of Human s.e.xuality. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England; Langlois, JH, Roggman, LA, et al. (1994) What is average and what is not average about attractive faces? Psychological Science, Psychological Science, 5: 214-219; Rhodes, G, Tremewan, T (1996) Averageness, exaggeration, and facial attractiveness. 5: 214-219; Rhodes, G, Tremewan, T (1996) Averageness, exaggeration, and facial attractiveness. Psychological Science, Psychological Science, 7: 105-110; Grammer, K, Thornhill, R (1994) Human (h.o.m.o sapiens) facial attractiveness and s.e.xual selection: the role of symmetry and averageness. 7: 105-110; Grammer, K, Thornhill, R (1994) Human (h.o.m.o sapiens) facial attractiveness and s.e.xual selection: the role of symmetry and averageness. Journal of Comparative Psychology, Journal of Comparative Psychology, 108: 233-242. 108: 233-242.

156 Randy Thornhill and psychologist Steve Gangestad Randy Thornhill and psychologist Steve Gangestad Thornhill, R, Gangestad, SW (1993) Human facial beauty: averageness, symmetry and parasite resistance. Thornhill, R, Gangestad, SW (1993) Human facial beauty: averageness, symmetry and parasite resistance. Human Nature, Human Nature, 4: 237-269. 4: 237-269.

156 Other studies have found that people Other studies have found that people Cunningham, MR, Barbee, AP, et al. (1990) What do women want? facial metric a.s.sessment of multiple motives in the perception of male physical attractiveness. Cunningham, MR, Barbee, AP, et al. (1990) What do women want? facial metric a.s.sessment of multiple motives in the perception of male physical attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59: 61-72. 59: 61-72.

156 These changes, in turn, raise the metabolic These changes, in turn, raise the metabolic Grossman, CJ (1985) Interactions between the gonadal steroids and the immune system. Grossman, CJ (1985) Interactions between the gonadal steroids and the immune system. Science, Science, 227: 257-261. 227: 257-261.

157 In addition to averageness and attention to secondary In addition to averageness and attention to secondary For nice reviews, see Rhodes, G (2006) The evolutionary psychology of facial beauty. For nice reviews, see Rhodes, G (2006) The evolutionary psychology of facial beauty. Annual Reviews of Psychology, Annual Reviews of Psychology, 57: 199-226; Thornhill, R, Gangestad, SW (1999) Facial attractiveness. 57: 199-226; Thornhill, R, Gangestad, SW (1999) Facial attractiveness. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3: 452-460. 3: 452-460.

157 In a diverse range of species tested In a diverse range of species tested For a review, see Thornhill, R, Moller, AP (1997) Developmental stability, disease and medicine. For a review, see Thornhill, R, Moller, AP (1997) Developmental stability, disease and medicine. Biological Reviews, Biological Reviews, 72: 497-548. 72: 497-548.

157 Population biologist John Manning Population biologist John Manning Manning, JT, Scutt, D, et al. (1998) Developmental stability, e.j.a.c.u.l.a.t.e size, and sperm quality in men. Manning, JT, Scutt, D, et al. (1998) Developmental stability, e.j.a.c.u.l.a.t.e size, and sperm quality in men. Evolution and Human Behavior, Evolution and Human Behavior, 19: 273-282. 19: 273-282.

157 They found that men with greater body asymmetry They found that men with greater body asymmetry Ibid. Ibid.

157 In women, breast asymmetry In women, breast asymmetry Manning, JT, Scutt, D, et al. (1997) Breast asymmetry and phenotypic quality in women. Manning, JT, Scutt, D, et al. (1997) Breast asymmetry and phenotypic quality in women. Evolution and Human Behavior, Evolution and Human Behavior, 18: 1-13. 18: 1-13.

157 and to the probability of marriage and to the probability of marriage Moller, AP, Soler, M, et al. (1995) Breast asymmetry, s.e.xual selection and human reproductive success. Moller, AP, Soler, M, et al. (1995) Breast asymmetry, s.e.xual selection and human reproductive success. Ethology and Sociobiology Ethology and Sociobiology, 16: 207-219.

158 Gangestad and Thornhill gave a series of health questionnaires to Gangestad and Thornhill gave a series of health questionnaires to Gangestad, SW, Thornhill, R (1997a) Human s.e.xual selection and developmental stability. In Gangestad, SW, Thornhill, R (1997a) Human s.e.xual selection and developmental stability. In Evolutionary Social Psychology, Evolutionary Social Psychology, ed. Simpson, JA, and Kenrick, DT. Lawrence Erlbaum a.s.sociates, Hillsdale, NJ, 169-195. ed. Simpson, JA, and Kenrick, DT. Lawrence Erlbaum a.s.sociates, Hillsdale, NJ, 169-195.

158 The researchers found a significant negative correlation The researchers found a significant negative correlation Ibid. Ibid.

158 In a study of 101 college students In a study of 101 college students Shakleford, TK, La.r.s.en, RJ (1997) Facial asymmetry as an indicator of psychological, emotional, and physiological distress. Shakleford, TK, La.r.s.en, RJ (1997) Facial asymmetry as an indicator of psychological, emotional, and physiological distress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72: 456-466. 72: 456-466.

159 They were also more likely to complain of depression They were also more likely to complain of depression Ibid. Ibid.

159 Consistent with this observation Consistent with this observation Markow, TA, Wandler, K (1986) Fluctuating dermatoglyphic asymmetry and the genetics of liability to schizophrenia. Markow, TA, Wandler, K (1986) Fluctuating dermatoglyphic asymmetry and the genetics of liability to schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, Psychiatry Research, 19: 323-328; Mellor, CS (1992) Dermatoglyphic evidence of fluctuating asymmetry in schizophrenia. 19: 323-328; Mellor, CS (1992) Dermatoglyphic evidence of fluctuating asymmetry in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, British Journal of Psychiatry, 160: 467-472; Durfee, KE (1974) Crooked ears and bad boy syndrome:Asymmetry as an indicator of minimal brain dysfunction. 160: 467-472; Durfee, KE (1974) Crooked ears and bad boy syndrome:Asymmetry as an indicator of minimal brain dysfunction. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 38: 305-316. 38: 305-316.

159 Independent judgments by external observers Independent judgments by external observers Shakleford, La.r.s.en (1997). Shakleford, La.r.s.en (1997).

159 This study confirms other reports that facial This study confirms other reports that facial See, for example, Grammer, K, Thornhill, R (1994) Human facial attractiveness and s.e.xual selection: the role of symmetry and averageness. See, for example, Grammer, K, Thornhill, R (1994) Human facial attractiveness and s.e.xual selection: the role of symmetry and averageness. Journal of Comparative Psychology, Journal of Comparative Psychology, 108: 233-242. 108: 233-242.

161 Such redundancy may facilitate the increased recognition Such redundancy may facilitate the increased recognition Bornstein, MH, Ferdinandsen, K, et al. (1981) Perception of symmetry in infancy. Bornstein, MH, Ferdinandsen, K, et al. (1981) Perception of symmetry in infancy. Developmental Psychology, Developmental Psychology, 17: 82-86. 17: 82-86.

161 Indeed, the data show the latter to be true, since newborns Indeed, the data show the latter to be true, since newborns See, for example, McCall, RB, Melsom,WH (1970) Complexity, contour, and area as determinants of attention in infants. See, for example, McCall, RB, Melsom,WH (1970) Complexity, contour, and area as determinants of attention in infants. Developmental Psychology, Developmental Psychology, 3: 343-349. 3: 343-349.

161 Newborns tend to look longer Newborns tend to look longer See, for example, McCall, RB, Melsom, WH (1970) Complexity, contour, and area as determinants of attention in infants. See, for example, McCall, RB, Melsom, WH (1970) Complexity, contour, and area as determinants of attention in infants. Developmental Psychology, Developmental Psychology, 3: 343-349; Bronson, GW (1982) 3: 343-349; Bronson, GW (1982) The Scanning Patterns of Human Infants: Implications for Visual Learning The Scanning Patterns of Human Infants: Implications for Visual Learning. Ablex Publishing, Norwood, NJ; Slater, AM (1998) Perceptual Development: Visual, Auditory and Speech Perception in Infants Perceptual Development: Visual, Auditory and Speech Perception in Infants. Psychology Press, East Suss.e.x, UK.

161 Newborns also prefer line drawings of faces Newborns also prefer line drawings of faces Maurer, D, Young, R (1983) Newborns' following of natural and distorted arrangements of facial features. Maurer, D, Young, R (1983) Newborns' following of natural and distorted arrangements of facial features. Infant Behavior and Development, Infant Behavior and Development, 6: 127-131. 6: 127-131.

162 As we have just reviewed, body and facial symmetry As we have just reviewed, body and facial symmetry Manning, JT, Scutt, D, et al. (1998) Developmental stability, e.j.a.c.u.l.a.t.e size, and sperm quality in men. Manning, JT, Scutt, D, et al. (1998) Developmental stability, e.j.a.c.u.l.a.t.e size, and sperm quality in men. Evolution and Human Behavior, Evolution and Human Behavior, 19: 273-282; Manning, Scutt, et al. (1997); Moller, Soler, et al. (1995). 19: 273-282; Manning, Scutt, et al. (1997); Moller, Soler, et al. (1995).

162 Hence there is evidence that individuals with greater symmetry Hence there is evidence that individuals with greater symmetry Shakleford, La.r.s.en (1997); Grammer, Thornhill (1994). Shakleford, La.r.s.en (1997); Grammer, Thornhill (1994).

163 In a landmark study, evolutionary psychologist In a landmark study, evolutionary psychologist For a comprehensive review, see Buss, DM (1994) For a comprehensive review, see Buss, DM (1994) The Evolution of Desire The Evolution of Desire. Basic Books, New York.

163 For instance, in comparison to men with high asymmetry For instance, in comparison to men with high asymmetry Gangestad, SW, Thronhill, R, et al. (1994) Facial attractiveness, developmental stability and fluctuating asymmetry. Gangestad, SW, Thronhill, R, et al. (1994) Facial attractiveness, developmental stability and fluctuating asymmetry. Ethology and Sociobiology, Ethology and Sociobiology, 15: 73-85; Thornhill, R, Gangestad, SW (1994) Human fluctuating asymmetry and s.e.xual behavior. 15: 73-85; Thornhill, R, Gangestad, SW (1994) Human fluctuating asymmetry and s.e.xual behavior. Psychological Science, Psychological Science, 5: 297-302; Gangestad,Thornhill (1997a); Gangestad, SW, Thorhill, R (1997b) The evolutionary psychology of extra-pair s.e.x: the role of fluctuating asymmetry. 5: 297-302; Gangestad,Thornhill (1997a); Gangestad, SW, Thorhill, R (1997b) The evolutionary psychology of extra-pair s.e.x: the role of fluctuating asymmetry. Ethology and Sociobiology, Ethology and Sociobiology, 18: 69-88;Thornhill, R, Gangestad, SW, et al. (1995) Human female o.r.g.a.s.m and mate fluctuating asymmetry. 18: 69-88;Thornhill, R, Gangestad, SW, et al. (1995) Human female o.r.g.a.s.m and mate fluctuating asymmetry. Animal Behavior, Animal Behavior, 50: 1601-1615. 50: 1601-1615.

163 In a recent study, biologist Craig Roberts In a recent study, biologist Craig Roberts Roberts, SC, Little, AC, et al. (2005) MHC-heterozygosity and human facial attractiveness. Roberts, SC, Little, AC, et al. (2005) MHC-heterozygosity and human facial attractiveness. Evolution and Human Behavior, Evolution and Human Behavior, 26: 213-226. 26: 213-226.

164 Men with greater heterozygosity Men with greater heterozygosity Ibid. Ibid.

164 As we saw earlier, waist-to-hip As we saw earlier, waist-to-hip Singh, D (1993a); Singh, D (1993b); Singh, D, Luis, S (1995); Singh, D (2004). Singh, D (1993a); Singh, D (1993b); Singh, D, Luis, S (1995); Singh, D (2004).

164 In other experiments, Devendra Singh In other experiments, Devendra Singh Singh, D (1995) Female health, attractiveness, and desirability for relationships: role of breast asymmetry and waist-to-hip ratio. Singh, D (1995) Female health, attractiveness, and desirability for relationships: role of breast asymmetry and waist-to-hip ratio. Ethology and Sociobiology, Ethology and Sociobiology, 16: 465-481. 16: 465-481.

164 Whereas most body parts exhibit fluctuating Whereas most body parts exhibit fluctuating Moller, AP, Soler, M, et al. (1995) Breast asymmetry, s.e.xual selection and human reproductive success. Moller, AP, Soler, M, et al. (1995) Breast asymmetry, s.e.xual selection and human reproductive success. Ethology and Sociobiology, Ethology and Sociobiology, 16: 207-219; Manning, JT, Scutt, D, et al. (1996) Asymmetry and menstrual cycle in women. 16: 207-219; Manning, JT, Scutt, D, et al. (1996) Asymmetry and menstrual cycle in women. Ethology and Sociobiology, Ethology and Sociobiology, 17: 129-143. 17: 129-143.

165 For instance, similar to newborns For instance, similar to newborns Palmer, SE, Hemenway, K (1978) Orientation and symmetry: effects of multiple, near, and rotational symmetries. Palmer, SE, Hemenway, K (1978) Orientation and symmetry: effects of multiple, near, and rotational symmetries. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 4: 691-702; Royer, F (1981) Detection of symmetry. 4: 691-702; Royer, F (1981) Detection of symmetry. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 7: 1186-1210. 7: 1186-1210.

165 Moreover, symmetric objects and patterns Moreover, symmetric objects and patterns Humphrey, D (1997) Preferences in symmetries and symmetries in drawings: asymmetries between ages and s.e.xes. Humphrey, D (1997) Preferences in symmetries and symmetries in drawings: asymmetries between ages and s.e.xes. Empirical Studies of the Arts, Empirical Studies of the Arts, 15: 41-60; Berlyne, DE (1974) 15: 41-60; Berlyne, DE (1974) Studies in the New Experimental Aesthetics: Steps Toward an Objective Psychology of Aesthetic Appreciation Studies in the New Experimental Aesthetics: Steps Toward an Objective Psychology of Aesthetic Appreciation. Hemisphere Company, Washington DC; Reber, R, Schwarz, N (2006) Perceptual fluency, preference, and evolution. Polish Psychological Bulletin, Polish Psychological Bulletin, 37:16-22; Gombridge, EH (1984) 37:16-22; Gombridge, EH (1984) The Sense of Order: A Study in the Psychology of Decorative Art The Sense of Order: A Study in the Psychology of Decorative Art. Phaidon, London.

165 Indeed, there is widespread use of symmetric designs Indeed, there is widespread use of symmetric designs Ibid. Gombridge; McMa.n.u.s, C (2002) Ibid. Gombridge; McMa.n.u.s, C (2002) Right Hand, Left Hand:The Origins of Asymmetry in Brains, Bodies, Atoms, and Cultures Right Hand, Left Hand:The Origins of Asymmetry in Brains, Bodies, Atoms, and Cultures. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

165 The subjects were asked to "choose the design The subjects were asked to "choose the design Cardenas, RA, Harris, LJ (2006) Symmetrical decorations enhance the attractiveness of faces and abstract designs. Cardenas, RA, Harris, LJ (2006) Symmetrical decorations enhance the attractiveness of faces and abstract designs. Evolution and Human Behavior, Evolution and Human Behavior, 27: 1-18. 27: 1-18.

166 This suggests that symmetry is preferred in nonbiological This suggests that symmetry is preferred in nonbiological Ibid. Ibid.

167 Interestingly, the application of an asymmetric design to a symmetric face Interestingly, the application of an asymmetric design to a symmetric face Ibid. Ibid.

10 Pleasure from Repet.i.tion and Rhythm 170 After only a few months, the scientists found After only a few months, the scientists found Chang, EF, Merzenich, MM (2003) Environmental noise r.e.t.a.r.ds auditory cortical development. Chang, EF, Merzenich, MM (2003) Environmental noise r.e.t.a.r.ds auditory cortical development. Science, Science, 300: 498-502. 300: 498-502.

171 Most interesting of all, when the noise-reared rats Most interesting of all, when the noise-reared rats Ibid. Ibid.

171 For instance, it is commonly known that older infants For instance, it is commonly known that older infants Dissanayake, E (1992) Dissanayake, E (1992) h.o.m.oaestheticus h.o.m.oaestheticus. Free Press, New York.

171 Various religious groups practice meditation Various religious groups practice meditation See, for example, Ga.s.s, R, Brehony, KA (2000) See, for example, Ga.s.s, R, Brehony, KA (2000) Chanting: Discovering Spirit in Sound Chanting: Discovering Spirit in Sound. Broadway, New York; Hahn,TN (2006) Chanting from the Heart: Buddhist Ceremonies and Daily Practices Chanting from the Heart: Buddhist Ceremonies and Daily Practices. Parallax Press, Berkeley, CA; Crummet, M (1993) Sun Dance Sun Dance. Falcon Press Publishing, San Ramon, CA.

171 Babies as young as four months old Babies as young as four months old Sch.e.l.lenberg, EG, Trehub, SE (1996) Natural musical intervals: evidence from infant listeners. Sch.e.l.lenberg, EG, Trehub, SE (1996) Natural musical intervals: evidence from infant listeners. Psychological Science, Psychological Science, 7: 272-277. 7: 272-277.

172 As an example, let us consider music As an example, let us consider music Miller, GF (2000) Miller, GF (2000) The Mating Mind The Mating Mind. Doubleday, New York ; Levitan, DJ (2006) This Is Your Brain on Music This Is Your Brain on Music. Dutton, New York; Mithen, S (2006) The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind, and Body The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind, and Body. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

172 Dawkins argued that the cla.s.sic idea Dawkins argued that the cla.s.sic idea Dawkins, R (1982) Dawkins, R (1982) The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England.

173 Rather, he suggests that in addition to its potential importance Rather, he suggests that in addition to its potential importance Mithen, S (2006). Mithen, S (2006).

173 Following Darwin's lead, he suggests that music Following Darwin's lead, he suggests that music Miller, GF (2000) Evolution of human music through s.e.xual selection. In Wallin, NL, Nerker, B, Brown, S (eds.), Miller, GF (2000) Evolution of human music through s.e.xual selection. In Wallin, NL, Nerker, B, Brown, S (eds.), The Origins of Music The Origins of Music. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Also see Mithen, S (2006), who suggests that both natural and s.e.xual selection have driven the evolution of human music production and perception.

174 He notes that from this sample,"males He notes that from this sample,"males Miller, GF (2000). Miller, GF (2000).

174 It is difficult to imagine the hunter-gatherer equivalent It is difficult to imagine the hunter-gatherer equivalent This example was also considered by Miller, GF (2000). This example was also considered by Miller, GF (2000).

174 But as Dawkins and others have observed, examples abound But as Dawkins and others have observed, examples abound Ibid. Dawkins, R (1982); and see Hauser, M (1996) Ibid. Dawkins, R (1982); and see Hauser, M (1996) The Evolution of Communication The Evolution of Communication. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

175 Studies in rodents and primates have found Studies in rodents and primates have found For example, see Chang, EF, Merzenich, MM (2003). For example, see Chang, EF, Merzenich, MM (2003).

175 Clearly, music has effects on social communication Clearly, music has effects on social communication Mithen, S (2006). Mithen, S (2006).

176 That is, they exhibit learning similar That is, they exhibit learning similar Mache, FB (2000) The necessity and problem with a universal musicality. In Wallin, NL, Nerker, B, Brown, S (eds.), Mache, FB (2000) The necessity and problem with a universal musicality. In Wallin, NL, Nerker, B, Brown, S (eds.), The Origins of Music The Origins of Music. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

176 There is now evidence that females There is now evidence that females Catchpole, CK, Slater, PJB (1995) Catchpole, CK, Slater, PJB (1995) Bird Song: Biological Themes and Variations Bird Song: Biological Themes and Variations. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.

176 Many species of birds also sing songs Many species of birds also sing songs Mache, FB (2000); Catchpole, CK, Slater, PJB (1995). Mache, FB (2000); Catchpole, CK, Slater, PJB (1995).

178 Likewise, virtuosic performance of instrumental Likewise, virtuosic performance of instrumental Miller, GF (2000). Miller, GF (2000).

179 Indeed, experiments have demonstrated that when speaking Indeed, experiments have demonstrated that when speaking Bolinger, D (1986) Bolinger, D (1986) Intonation and Its Parts: Melody in Spoken English Intonation and Its Parts: Melody in Spoken English. Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, CA.

11 h.o.m.o Addictus 182 Rats that are made sick by ingesting tainted Rats that are made sick by ingesting tainted Reilly, S, Bornovalova, MA (2005) Conditioned taste aversion and amygdala lesions in the rat: A critical review. Reilly, S, Bornovalova, MA (2005) Conditioned taste aversion and amygdala lesions in the rat: A critical review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 29(7): 1067-1088;Welzl, H, D'Adamo, P, Lipp, HP (2001) Conditioned taste aversion as a learning and memory paradigm. 29(7): 1067-1088;Welzl, H, D'Adamo, P, Lipp, HP (2001) Conditioned taste aversion as a learning and memory paradigm. Behavioral Brain Science, Behavioral Brain Science, 125(1-2): 205-213;Yamamoto,T, Shimura, T, Sako, N, et al. (1994) Neural substrates for conditioned taste aversion in the rat. 125(1-2): 205-213;Yamamoto,T, Shimura, T, Sako, N, et al. (1994) Neural substrates for conditioned taste aversion in the rat. Behavioral Brain Research, Behavioral Brain Research, 65(2): 123-137. 65(2): 123-137.

188 Negative feelings occur with the presence of fitness decrements Negative feelings occur with the presence of fitness decrements Panksepp, J, Knutson, B, Burgdorf, J (2002) The role of brain emotional systems in addiction: a neuro-evolutionary perspective and new "self-report" animal model. Panksepp, J, Knutson, B, Burgdorf, J (2002) The role of brain emotional systems in addiction: a neuro-evolutionary perspective and new "self-report" animal model. Addiction, Addiction, 97: 459-469. 97: 459-469.

188 Many anthropologists have pointed out Many anthropologists have pointed out For example, see Sullivan, RJ, Hagan, EH (2002) Psychotropic substance seeking: evolutionary pathology or adaptation. For example, see Sullivan, RJ, Hagan, EH (2002) Psychotropic substance seeking: evolutionary pathology or adaptation. Addiction, Addiction, 97: 389-400; Dudley, R (2002) Fermenting fruit and the historical ecology of ethanol ingestion: is alcoholism in modern humans an evolutionary hangover? 97: 389-400; Dudley, R (2002) Fermenting fruit and the historical ecology of ethanol ingestion: is alcoholism in modern humans an evolutionary hangover? Addiction, Addiction, 97: 381-388. 97: 381-388.

189 For instance, For instance, Areca catechu Areca catechu, commonly known Glover, IC (1977) Prehistoric plant remains from Southeast Asia with special reference to rice. In Taddei, M (ed.), Glover, IC (1977) Prehistoric plant remains from Southeast Asia with special reference to rice. In Taddei, M (ed.), South Asian Archaeology South Asian Archaeology. Inst.i.tuto Universitario Orientale, Naples, 7-37.

189 There is also evidence that nicotine There is also evidence that nicotine Watson, P (1983) Watson, P (1983) This Precious Foliage:A Study of the Aboriginal Psychoactive Drug Pituri This Precious Foliage:A Study of the Aboriginal Psychoactive Drug Pituri. University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.

189 For many psychoactive substances For many psychoactive substances Sullivan, RJ, Hagan, EH, 2002. Sullivan, RJ, Hagan, EH, 2002.

189 Indeed, the anthropoid diet has been predominantly Indeed, the anthropoid diet has been predominantly Dudley, R, 2002. Dudley, R, 2002.

189 Temperate-zone fruit sources Temperate-zone fruit sources McKenzie, JA, McKechnie, W (1979) A comparative study of resource utilization in natural populations of McKenzie, JA, McKechnie, W (1979) A comparative study of resource utilization in natural populations of Drosophila Malanogaster Drosophila Malanogaster and and D. simulans D. simulans. Oecologia, Oecologia, 40: 299-309. 40: 299-309.

189 Comparative studies have found that as most temperate Comparative studies have found that as most temperate Brady, CJ (1987) Fruit ripening. Brady, CJ (1987) Fruit ripening. Annual Review of Plant Physiology, Annual Review of Plant Physiology, 38: 155-178. 38: 155-178.

189 Some anthropologists have suggested that ethanol Some anthropologists have suggested that ethanol Dudley, R (2002). Dudley, R (2002).

190 More than 60 percent of Americans have tried an illicit More than 60 percent of Americans have tried an illicit Johnston, LD, O'Malley, PM, Bachman, JG (2001) Johnston, LD, O'Malley, PM, Bachman, JG (2001) Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975-2000 Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975-2000.Volume II. College Students and Adults Aged 19-40 College Students and Adults Aged 19-40. Bethesda, MD, National Inst.i.tute on Drug Abuse, MIH Publication 01-4925.

190 For instance, recent studies have found that even for a highly For instance, recent studies have found that even for a highly Wagner, FA, Anthony, JC (2002) From first drug use to drug dependence: Developmental periods of risk for dependence upon marijuana, cocaine, and alcohol. Wagner, FA, Anthony, JC (2002) From first drug use to drug dependence: Developmental periods of risk for dependence upon marijuana, cocaine, and alcohol. Neuropsychopharmacology, Neuropsychopharmacology, 26: 479-488. 26: 479-488.

195 possessing an iron frame possessing an iron frame Harlow, JM (1868) Recovery from the pa.s.sage of an iron bar through the head. Harlow, JM (1868) Recovery from the pa.s.sage of an iron bar through the head. Publications of the Ma.s.sachusetts Medical Society, Publications of the Ma.s.sachusetts Medical Society, 2: 329-346; Harlow, JM (1848-1849) Pa.s.sage of an iron rod through the head. 2: 329-346; Harlow, JM (1848-1849) Pa.s.sage of an iron rod through the head. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39: 389. 39: 389.

195 This exacting and decisive nature This exacting and decisive nature Ibid. Ibid.

195 "to please the fancy of the owner" Bigelo, HJ (1850) Dr. Harlow's case of recovery from the pa.s.sage of an iron bar through the head. Bigelo, HJ (1850) Dr. Harlow's case of recovery from the pa.s.sage of an iron bar through the head. American Journal of the Medical Sciences, American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 19: 13-22. 19: 13-22.

196 "Gage is no longer Gage" Ibid. Ibid.

197 "possessed a well-balanced mind Ibid. Harlow, JM (1868). Ibid. Harlow, JM (1868).

197 A child in his intellectual capacity and manifestations A child in his intellectual capacity and manifestations Ibid. Ibid.

198 There is emerging evidence that chronic exposure There is emerging evidence that chronic exposure Jentsch, JD, Taylor, JR (1999) Impulsivity resulting from frontostriatal dysfunction in drug abuse: implications for the control of behavior by reward-related stimuli. Jentsch, JD, Taylor, JR (1999) Impulsivity resulting from frontostriatal dysfunction in drug abuse: implications for the control of behavior by reward-related stimuli. Psychopharmacology, Psychopharmacology, 146: 373-390;Volkow, ND, Hitzemann, R,w.a.n.g, GJ, et al. (1992) Long-term frontal brain metabolic changes in chronic cocaine abusers. 146: 373-390;Volkow, ND, Hitzemann, R,w.a.n.g, GJ, et al. (1992) Long-term frontal brain metabolic changes in chronic cocaine abusers. Synapse, Synapse, 11: 184-190. 11: 184-190.

198 Consistent with these findings, addicts Consistent with these findings, addicts For example, Jentsch and Taylor (1999); Bechara, A, Damasio, H (2002) Decision-making and addiction. Part I. Impaired activation of somatic states in substance dependent individuals when pondering decisions with negative future consequences. For example, Jentsch and Taylor (1999); Bechara, A, Damasio, H (2002) Decision-making and addiction. Part I. Impaired activation of somatic states in substance dependent individuals when pondering decisions with negative future consequences. Neuropsychologia, Neuropsychologia, 40: 1675-1689. 40: 1675-1689.

198 It is very likely that a loss of inhibitory It is very likely that a loss of inhibitory Robinson, TE, Berridge, KC (2003) Addiction. Robinson, TE, Berridge, KC (2003) Addiction. Annual Review of Psychology, Annual Review of Psychology, 54: 25-53. 54: 25-53.

198 This view is rooted in fairly recent findings This view is rooted in fairly recent findings Robinson, TE, Berridge, KC (1993) The neural basis of drug craving: An incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Robinson, TE, Berridge, KC (1993) The neural basis of drug craving: An incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Research Reviews, Brain Research Reviews, 18: 157-198; Robinson, TE, Berridge, KC (2000) The psychology and neurobiology of addiction: an incentive-sensitization view. 18: 157-198; Robinson, TE, Berridge, KC (2000) The psychology and neurobiology of addiction: an incentive-sensitization view. Addiction, Addiction, 95: S91-S117; Robinson,TE, Berridge, KC (2003). 95: S91-S117; Robinson,TE, Berridge, KC (2003).

199 A major point, however, is that these animals A major point, however, is that these animals See, for example, Pecina, S, Cagniard, B, Berridge, KC, et al. (2003) Hyperdopaminergic mutant mice have higher "wanting" but not "liking" for sweet rewards. See, for example, Pecina, S, Cagniard, B, Berridge, KC, et al. (2003) Hyperdopaminergic mutant mice have higher "wanting" but not "liking" for sweet rewards. Journal of Neuroscience, Journal of Neuroscience, 23: 9395-9402. 23: 9395-9402.