The Philippine Islands Part 55

Up to the end of 1904 the chief authority in these Islands was styled the "Civil Governor." Thenceforth, by special Act of Congress, the t.i.tle was changed to that of "Governor-General."

The Emoluments of the Members of the Insular Government, the Chiefs of Departments, and the princ.i.p.al officers are as follows, viz. [236]:--

$ gold President of the Philippine and Civil Commissions 20,000 Four American Members of the Philippine Commission, _ex-officio_ Members of the Civil Commission each 15,500 Three Philippine Members of the Philippine Commission each 5,000

_Departments_

Architecture Bureau Chief 4,000 Archives, Patents, Copyright and Trade Marks Chief 3,000 Agriculture Bureau Chief 4,000 Audit Office Auditor 7,000 Bilibid Prison Warden 3,000 [237] Civil Service Board Chief Examiner 4,000 Court of First Instance, Manila each Judge 5,500 Court of First Instance, provincial Judge $4,500 to 5,000 Court of Land Registration Judge 5,000 Court of Customs Appeal Judge 4,500 Civil Hospital Chief Physician 3,000 Civil Sanatorium (Benguet) Chief Physician 2,400 Constabulary Executive Officer 5,500 Coast Guard and Transport Office Chief (Navy pay) -- Cold Storage and Ice-Plant Superintendent 3,600 Customs and Immigration Collector of Customs 7,000 Engineering Department Consulting Engineer 5,000 Ethnological Survey Chief 3,500 Education Department Gen. Superintendent 6,000 Forestry Bureau Chief 3,000 Laboratories (Gov.) Superintendent 6,000 Manila Port Works Chief (Army pay) -- Mining Bureau Chief 3,000 Non-Christian Tribes Bureau -- -- _Official Gazette, The_ Editor 1,800 Purchasing Agent -- 4,500 Public Lands Office Chief 3,200 Public Health Commissioner 3,500 Public Printing Office Public Printer 4,000 Post Office Director 6,000 Public Lands Chief 3,200 Supreme Court Chief Justice [238] 7,500 Supreme Court each a.s.sociate Judge 7,000 Treasury Office Treasurer 7,000 Weather Bureau Director 2,500

The total cost of the Civil Service for the year 1903 amounted to 8,014,098.77 pesos (_vide_ "Official Gazette," Vol. II., No. 8, dated February 4, 1904), equal to $4,007,049.38 gold.

At the time of the American occupation (1898) the Government was necessarily military, the first governor being Maj.-General Elwell S. Otis up to May 5, 1900, when he returned to America and was immediately succeeded by Maj.-General Arthur McArthur. On January 20, 1899, during General Otis's governorship, a Commission of Inquest was appointed under the presidency of Dr. Jacob Gould Schurman known as the Schurman Commission, which arrived in Manila on May 2 to investigate the state of affairs in the Islands. The Commission was instructed to "endeavour, without interference with the military authorities of the United States now in control in the Philippines, to ascertain what amelioration in the condition of the inhabitants and what improvements in public order may be practicable." The other members of the Commission were Rear-Admiral George Dewey, Charles Denby, Maj.-General Elwell S. Otis, and Dean C. Worcester. Admiral Dewey, however, was soon relieved of his obligation to remain on the Commission, and sailed from Manila on May 19 on the _Olympia_ for New York, _via_ Europe. The commissioners' inquiries into everything concerning the Islands, during their few months' sojourn, are embodied in a published report, dated December 20, 1900. [239]

The War of Independence was being waged during the whole time, and military government, with full administrative powers, continued, as heretofore, until September 1, 1900. In the meantime the Washington Government resolved that military rule in the Islands should be superseded by civil government. The pacified provinces, and those in conditions considered fit for civil administration, were to be so established, and pending the conclusion of the war and the subsidence of brigandage, the remainder of the Archipelago was to be administered as military districts. With this end in view, on March 16, 1900, Judge William H. Taft [240] was commissioned to the Islands and sailed from San Francisco (Cal.) with his four colleagues, on April 15, for Manila, where he arrived on June 3. In the three months' interval, pending the a.s.sumption of legislative power, the Taft Commission was solely occupied in investigating conditions. To each commissioner certain subjects were a.s.signed; for example, Mr. Taft took up the Civil Service, Public Lands, and the Friar questions. Each commissioner held a kind of Court of Inquiry, before which voluntary evidence was taken. This testimony, later on, appeared in print, and its perusal shows how difficult indeed it must have been for the Commission to have distinguished the true from the false, the valuable from the trivial. It was the beginning of the end of military rule in the Islands. "The days of the Empire,"

as the military still designate that period, were numbered, and yet not without regret by several native communities, as evidenced by the fact that they sent pet.i.tions to the authorities in Manila against the change to civil government. Many law-abiding natives explained to me that the feature in military rule which particularly pleased them was its prompt action--such a contrast to the only civil government of which they had had any experience. About two years later, in 1903, Lieut.-Gen. Miles, Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. Army, made a tour in the Islands and drew up a report on the conduct of military operations, charging military officers with the grossest cruelty to the natives. A Senate Commission of Inquest was appointed, but it was quite impossible to prove anything conclusively on unimpeachable evidence; the general retired from his command without the blessing of his comrades, and the matter was abated.

The Philippine Commission commenced its functions as the legislative body, with limitary executive powers in addition, on September 1, 1900, the military governor continuing as the Chief Executive until July 4, 1901. Up to that date the civil executive authority in the organized provinces was vested in the military governor. From that date Maj.-General Adna R. Chaffee relieved Maj.-General McArthur in the sole capacity of commander-in-chief of the military division, the full executive civil power having been transferred to the Civil Commission, and thenceforth the Insular Government became const.i.tuted as it is at present. Governor Taft pursued his investigations until February, 1901, when he started on a provincial tour, heard opinions, and tendered the hand of peace. Munic.i.p.alities united at certain centres to meet him; the rich vied with each other to regale him royally; the crowd flocked in from all parts to greet him; the women smiled in their gala dresses; the men were obsequiousness itself; delicate viands were placed before him, and, like every other intelligent traveller in these Islands, he was charmed by that distinguishing trait of the Luzon Islanders--that hospitality which has no parity elsewhere, and for which words cannot be found adequately to describe it to the reader. As Governor Taft himself said truly, "When a Filipino who has a house says it is yours, he turns out his family and puts you in." [241] Governor Taft's reception was only that which had been accorded to many a personage before his day, travelling in a style befitting his rank. He returned to Manila, captivated by the fascinating side of Philippine character: the reverse side he could never know by personal experience, and the natives secured in him a champion of their cause--"Philippines for the Filipinos." The main object of his official progress was to collect information for new legislation anent the munic.i.p.alities. Civil government was rapidly established in all the provinces which were peaceful and otherwise suitable for it. The War of Independence was drawing to a close (April, 1902), and meanwhile Governor Taft made tours to Negros, Cebu, and other islands to explain and inaugurate the new _regime_ based on President McKinley's Instructions to the Taft Commission, dated April 7, 1900. Governor Taft's administration was signalized by his complacency towards the natives, his frequent utterances favourable to their aspirations, and his discouragement of those Americans who sought to make quick fortunes and be gone. But there were other Americans than these, and his favourite theme, "Philippines for the Filipinos," aroused unconcealed dissatisfaction among the many immigrants, especially the ex-volunteers, who not unnaturally considered they had won a right to exploit, within reasonable bounds, the "new possession" gained by conquest. Adverse critics contended that he unduly protected the Filipino to the prejudice of the white man's interest. Frank and unfettered encouragement of American enterprise would surely have helped the professed policy of the State, which was to lead the Filipinos to habits of industry; and how could this have been more easily accomplished than by individual example? On the other hand, the Filipinos, in conformity, regarded him as their patron: many were unconsciously drawn to submission by the suavity of his rule, whilst his courtesy towards the vanquished served as the keynote to his countrymen to moderate their antipathy for the native and remove the social barriers to a better understanding. And, in effect, his example did serve to promote a _rapprochement_ between the conquerors and the conquered.

Appointed to the Secretaryship of War, ex-Governor Taft left the Philippines in January, 1904, to take up his new office, and was succeeded in the presidency of the Philippine and Civil Commissions by Mr. Luke E. Wright. [242] On his way back to the United States ex-Governor Taft was entertained by the Emperor of j.a.pan, and on his arrival in his native city of Cincinnati (Ohio) he made a remarkable speech on the subject of the Philippines, the published reports of which contain the following significant pa.s.sage:--"The Filipinos elected the provincial governor and we appointed the treasurer. We went there to teach the Filipinos honesty, and we appointed American treasurers on the theory that the Americans could not steal. Never, never have I suffered the humiliation that came to me when seventeen of our disbursing officers, treasurers, were found defaulters! They are now in Bilibid prison serving out their twenty-five years."

Since then the Manila Press has recorded many cases of breach of public trust by those who were sent to teach the Islanders how to rule themselves (_vide_ p. 493). The financial loss arising from malfeasance on the part of any civil servant is made good to the Treasury by a Guarantee Society, which gives a bond in each case, whilst it takes years to recover the consequent loss of prestige to the State. The obvious remedy for this state of things would be the establishment in America of a Colonial Civil Service into which only youths would be admitted for training in the several departments. Progressive emolument, with the prospect of a long, permanent career and a pension at the end of it would be inducements to efficiency and moral stability.

The Philippine Civil Service is open to all United States citizens and Filipinos between the ages of 18 and 40 years in accordance with Philippine Commission Act No. 5, known as the "Civil Service Act,"

pa.s.sed September 19, 1900. The service is divided into "cla.s.sified"

and "uncla.s.sified." The former division is strictly subject to the provisions of the above Act; the latter indicates the positions which may be filled by appointment without subjection to the provisions of the said Act. The Act declares its purpose to be "the establishment and maintenance of an efficient and honest civil service in the Philippine Islands." American soldiers who have less than six months to serve can apply for permission to be examined for the civil service. The Act does not include examination for civil positions in the Military Division of the Islands, but the Civil Service Board is empowered to hold such examinations to fill vacancies as they may occur in the nine military departments which employ civilians. General examinations, some in English only, others in Spanish only, or both, are held every Monday, and special examinations which include those for scientific, professional, and technical positions are taken on specified dates. The commencing salaries of the positions offered range from $1,200 downwards. Medical attendance is furnished gratis, and the minimum working time is six and a half hours per day, except from April 1 until June 15--the hottest weather--when the minimum working day is five hours. American women are employed in the Post Office.

The Civil Commission is located in the Walled City in the building which was formerly the Town Hall, a new Town Hall having been built outside the walls. Occasionally, when public interest is much aroused on the subject of a proposed measure, the Commission announces that a public conference will be held for the expression of opinion thereon. A few persons state their views before the Commissioners, who rebut them _seance tenante_, and the measure, as proposed, usually becomes law, unless outside agitation and popular clamour induce the Commissioners to modify it. At times the proceedings have been enlivened by sparkling humour. A worthy and patriotic Filipino once gravely prefaced his speech thus:--"I rise to speak, inspired by Divine Right"--but he had to wait until the roars of laughter had subsided. When the "Sedition Act" was being discussed, a less worthy auditor declared a.s.sa.s.sination of the Chief of a State to be merely a political offence. He expected to go to prison and pose as a martyr-patriot, but the Commission very rightly damped his ambition by declaring him to be a fool irresponsible for his acts.

Philippine Commission Acts are pa.s.sed with great rapidity, amended and re-amended, sometimes several times, to the bewilderment of the public. Out of 862 Acts pa.s.sed up to the end of 1903, 686 of them were amended (some five times) and on 782 no public discussion was allowed. The "Internal Revenue Law of 1904" had not been in force nine months when it was amended (March, 1905) by another law. By Philippine Commission Acts Nos. 127 and 128 the limits of the Surigao and Misamis provinces were defined and afterwards upset by Act No. 787. The policy of the Americans anent the Philippines was continually shifting during the first five years of their occupation, and only since ex-Governor Taft became Secretary of War does it seem to have a.s.sumed a somewhat more stable character.

The Archipelago is divided into 41 provinces (exclusive of the Moro Province, _vide_ p. 577), all under civil rule, in accordance with Congress Act of July 1, 1902, and War Office Order of July 4, 1902, whereby the remainder of military government ceased. In June, 1904, nearly all the above 41 provinces had native governors with salaries ranging from $3,000 gold downwards. In most of these provinces the native governor and two American officials of about equal rank, such as the Treasurer and the Supervisor, form a Provincial Council, but the member who disagrees with the vote of the other two can appeal to the Gov.-General. After the War of Independence several insurgent chiefs were appointed to provincial governments; for instance, Cailles in La Laguna, Trias in Cavite, Climaco in Cebu, etc. For obvious reasons the system is advantageous. Juan Cailles, Governor of La Laguna, is the son of a Frenchman who married a native in one of the French colonies and then settled in these Islands. For some time Juan Cailles was registered at the French Consulate as a French citizen. As commander of the insurgents of La Laguna and Tayabas during the War of Independence, he maintained strict discipline in his troops, and energetically drew the line between legitimate warfare and common freebooting.

The provincial governor may be either elected or appointed by the Civil Commission. If he be a Filipino, he is usually elected by vote of the vice-presidents (ex-mayors) and munic.i.p.al councillors of the province. The mayor of a munic.i.p.ality is styled "Presidente." Every male over twenty-three years of age who pays taxes amounting to 30 pesos, or who possesses 500 pesos' value of goods is eligible for election by vote of the townspeople. He holds office for two years, but can be re-elected for a consecutive term. The munic.i.p.alities are of four cla.s.ses according to their importance, the mayor's salary being as follows, viz.: First cla.s.s, 1,200 pesos; second cla.s.s, 1,000 pesos; third cla.s.s, 800 pesos; and fourth cla.s.s, 600 pesos. Provincial justices of the peace are paid by litigants' fees only. For munic.i.p.al improvements, or other urgent necessity, the Insular Government, from time to time, grants loans to munic.i.p.alities, repayable with interest. In some cases two or more towns have been wisely merged into one munic.i.p.ality: for instance, Cauit, Salinas, and Novaleta (Cavite) go together; Baliuag, Bustos, and San Rafael (Bulacan) form one; Barasoain and Malolos (Bulacan) are united; as are also Taal and Lemery (Batangas). By Philippine Commission Act No. 719 the 51 munic.i.p.alities of Yloilo Province were reduced to 17.

Malolos is the new capital of Bulacan Province, and the two former provinces of Camarines Norte and Camarines Sur are now one, under the name of Ambos Camarines. In the dependent wards of towns (_barrios_) the munic.i.p.al police are practically the only official representatives; the post of lieutenant (_teniente de barrio_) is gratis and onerous, and few care to take it.

The _Guardia Civil_ or Rural Guard of Spanish times has been superseded by the _Philippine Constabulary_ under the supreme and independent command of a cavalry captain (U.S.A.) holding local rank of Brig.-General. In the private opinion of many regular army officers, this force ought to be under the control of the Division Commander. The officers are American, European, and Philippine. The privates are Filipinos, and the whole force is about 7,000 strong. The function of this body is to maintain order in rural districts. For some time there were cases of batches of the rank-and-file pa.s.sing over to the brigands whom they were sent to disperse or capture. However, this disturbing element has been gradually eliminated, and the Philippine Constabulary has since performed very useful service. Nevertheless, many educated natives desire its improvement or suppression, on account of the alleged abuse of functions to the prejudice of peaceful inhabitants (_vide_ p. 550).

Co-operating with munic.i.p.al police and the Philippine Constabulary there is an organized Secret Police Service. It is a heterogeneous band of many nationalities, including Asiatics, which, as an _executive_ force to investigate crimes known to have been committed, renders good service; as an _initiative_ force, with power, with or without authority, to molest peaceful citizens in quest of imaginary misdemeanours, in order to justify the necessity of its employment, it is an unwelcome inst.i.tution to all, especially the lower-middle and common cla.s.ses, amongst whom it can operate with greater impunity.

Not unfrequently when a European nation acquires a new tropical possession, the imaginative mind discovers therein unbounded wealth which the eye cannot see, hidden stores of gold procurable only by manual labour, and fortune-making possibilities awaiting whosoever has the courage to reveal them. The propagation of these fallacious notions always allures to the new territory a crowd of ne'er-do-wells, amongst the _bona fide_ workers, who ultimately become loafers preying upon the generosity of the toilers. This cla.s.s was not wanting in the Philippines; some had followed the army; others who had finished their term of voluntary military service elected to remain in the visionary El Dorado. Some surrept.i.tiously opened drinking-shanties; others exploited feminine frailty or eked out an existence by beggarly imposition, and it was stated by a provincial governor that, to his knowledge, at one time, there were 80 of this cla.s.s in his province. [243] The number of undesirables was so great that it became necessary for the Insular Government to pa.s.s a Vagrant Act, under which the loafer could be arrested and disposed of. The Act declares vagrancy to be a misdemeanour, and provides penalties therefor; but it has always been interpreted in a generous spirit of pity for the delinquent, to whom the option of a free pa.s.sage home or imprisonment was given, generally resulting in his quitting the Islands. This measure, which brought honour to its devisers and relief to society, was, in a few instances, abused by those who feigned to be vagrants in order to secure the pa.s.sage home, but these were judiciously dealt with by a regulation imposing upon them a short period of previous training in stone-breaking to fit them for active life in the homeland.

The following General Order was issued by the Division Commander in January, 1905, viz.:--

It is reported by the Civil Governor that in several places in Luzon there have gathered numbers of dishonourably discharged men from the army who are a hindrance to progress and good order. The Division Commander desires that in future no dishonourably discharged soldiers be allowed to remain in the Islands, where their presence is very undesirable. It is therefore directed that, in acting on cases where the sentence is dishonourable discharge without confinement, the dishonourable discharge be made to take effect after arrival in San Francisco, where the men so discharged should be sent by first transport.

The Philippine Archipelago is a military division under the supreme command of a Maj.-General. The commanders, since the taking of Manila (1898), have been successively Maj.-Generals Merritt, Otis, McArthur, Chaffee, Davis, Wade, Corbin, and Wood.

The Division is administratively subdivided into three departments, namely Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the two former being commanded by Brig.-Generals and the last by a Maj.-General.

The _Department of Luzon_, headquarters at Manila, includes the following princ.i.p.al islands, viz. Luzon, Catanduanes, Romblon, Masbate, Marinduque, Mindoro, Sibuyan, Polillo, Ticao, Tablas, Lucbang, and Burias.

The _Department of Visayas_, headquarters at Yloilo, embraces the islands of Cebu, Negros, Panay, Leyte, Samar, and Bojol.

The _Department of Mindanao_, headquarters at Zamboanga, includes all the remaining islands of the Philippine Archipelago.

STATEMENT OF ARMY STRENGTH IN THE PHILIPPINES ON JUNE 30, 1904 [244]

Present Absent Present and Absent Officers. Troops. Officers. Troops. Officers. Troops.

General Officers 5 0 0 0 5 0 Gen. Staff Officers 45 0 4 0 49 0 Non-Com Officers at posts 0 109 0 0 0 109 Medical Department 93 919 10 0 103 919 [245]Contract Surgeons 63 0 22 0 85 0 [245]Contract Dental Surgeons 17 0 0 0 17 0 Engineers 25 395 1 7 26 402 Signal Corps 7 353 2 1 9 354 Ordnance Corps 2 49 0 2 2 51 Officers temporarily in the Division 33 0 0 0 33 0 Total Cavalry 172 2,903 27 32 199 2,935 Total Artillery 9 293 3 0 12 293 Total Infantry 356 7,020 78 70 434 7,090

Total American Forces 827 12,041 147 112 974 12,153 Philippine Scouts 77 4,565 23 413 100 4,978

Total Strength 904 16,606 170 525 1,074 17,131

Besides the American troops, there is a voluntary enlistment of Filipinos, forming the Philippine Scout Corps, a body of rural police supplementary to the constabulary, commanded by a major and 100 American first and second lieutenants. Until recently the troops were stationed over the Islands in 98 camps and garrison towns, as follows, viz.:--In the Department of Luzon 76, Visayas 8, and Mindanao 14; but this number is now considered unnecessarily large and is being reduced to effect economy.

The Army, Navy, and Philippine Scouts expenses are entirely defrayed by the United States Treasury. A military prison is established in the little Island of Malahi, in the Laguna de Bay, whence the escape of a prisoner is signalled by three shots from a cannon, and whoever captures him receives a $30-reward. As the original notice to this effect required the recovery of the prisoner "alive or dead," two armed natives went in pursuit of an American soldier. To be quite sure of their prey they adopted the safe course of killing him first. Such an unexpected interpretation of the notice as the grim spectacle of an American's head was naturally repugnant to the authorities, and the "alive or dead" condition was thenceforth expunged.

CHAPTER XXIX

The Land of the Moros "Allah Akbar!"

The Military Department of Mindanao comprises the large island of that name and the adjacent insular territories inhabited chiefly by Mahometans, called by the Christians _Moros_ (_vide_ p. 129, et seq.).

The natural features of these southern islands are, in general, similar to those of the other large islands of the Archipelago, but being peopled by races (exclusive of the settlers) of different habits, customs, religions, and languages, some aggressively savage and warlike, others more or less tractable, but all semi-civilized, the social aspect is so distinct from that of the islands inhabited by the Christian Filipinos as almost to appear like another quarter of the tropical globe.

Early in the year 1899 General John C. Bates was appointed to the command of the Mahometan islands. In Mindanao Island there was no supreme chieftain with whom to treat for the gradual introduction of civilization and American methods, the whole territory being parcelled out and ruled by petty Sultans, _Dattos_ or chiefs, in separate independence. In the Lake Lanao district, for instance, there is at least one _Datto_ for every 50 men. The only individual who had any pretence to general control of the Mahometan population was Hadji [246] Mohammad Jamalul Kiram, the Sultan of Sulu [247] (_vide_ p. 141). Therefore, in August, 1899, General Bates and this petty prince made an agreement which was ratified by Congress on February 1 following, on the recommendation of the Schurman Commission (_vide_ p. 562), and thenceforth came into force. The princ.i.p.al conditions of this convention were: (1) The Sultan's dignity and certain monopoly rights were recognized under American suzerainty. (2) An annual pension of 3,000 pesos was secured to him, and annual salaries ranging from 180 to 900 pesos were to be paid to eight of his _Dattos_ and one priest. (3) A Moro accused of crime was to be tried by a Moro judge, the maximum penalty for murder being fixed at 105 pesos (equal to about ten guineas), which was a fair price in this region, from the Moro point of view, for life here is held very cheap. (4) Absconding Americans or Sulus were to be mutually surrendered. (5) The Americans were (_a_) to protect the Sultan against encroachments by foreigners or European nations; (_b_) not to take arms against the Sulus without consulting the Sultan; (_c_) not to transfer their dominion over Jolo to others except in agreement with the Sultan; (_d_) to be at liberty to occupy any place in the Sultan's domains without trespa.s.sing on lands about the royal residence, except as a military necessity of war with a foreign Power; (_e_) not to interfere with the Mahometan religion, or its rites, or its customs; (_f_) not to travel about Sulu Island without the permission of the Sultan, who would provide an escort. (6) The American flag was to be used on land and at sea. (7) The Sulus were to be free to carry their native arms. (8) The Sultan was at liberty to collect tribute everywhere in his domains, and to have the right of direct intercourse with the American Gov.-General.

In consideration of the above, the Sultan undertook to maintain order between his _Dattos_, to repress internecine warfare, and gradually to abolish slavery throughout his jurisdiction.

Apparently the Sultan entered into the agreement much in the spirit of Mr. Micawber, who signed the I.O.U.'s and thanked G.o.d his debts were paid. The ruler of Sulu was not over-willing and far less able to give effect to its conditions, his power being more nominal than real in his own possessions, and in Mindanao almost _nil_. Nevertheless, it was a politic measure on the Americans'

part, because its non-fulfilment opened the way for the adoption, with every appearance of justification, of more direct and coercive intervention in the affairs of this region. General Bates was succeeded by other generals in the command of this district, without any very visible progress towards definite pacification and subjection to civilization. The military posts on the coasts, evacuated by the Spaniards, were occupied by American troops and new ones were created, but every attempt to establish law and order beyond their limits, on the white man's system, was wasted effort. When the Spanish-American War broke out, the Spanish military authorities were on the point of maturing a plan for the final conquest of Mindanao. Due to the persistent activity of my old friend General Gonzalez Parrado, they had already achieved much in the Lake Lanao district, through the Marahui campaign. On the evacuation of the Spaniards the unrestrained petty chiefs were like lions released from captivity. Blood-shed, oppression, extortion, and all the instinctive habits of the shrewd savage were again rife. A preconcerted plan of campaign brings little definite result; it never culminates in the attainment of any final issue, for, on the native side, there is neither union of tribes nor any combined organized attempt at even guerilla warfare, hence the destruction of a _cotta_ or the decimation of a clan has no immediate and lasting moral effect on the neighbouring warlike tribe. Life is cheap among them; a Moro thinks no more about lopping off another's head than he does about pulling a cocoanut from the palm-tree. The chief abhors the white man because he interferes with the chief's living by the labour of his tribe, and the tribesman himself is too ignorant even to contemplate emanc.i.p.ation. Subservience to the bidding of the wily _Datto_, poverty, squalidity, and tribal warfare for bravado or interest seem as natural to the Moro as the sight of the rising sun. Hence, when the Americans resolved to change all this and marched into the tribal territories for the purpose, the war-gongs rallied the fighting-men to resist the dreaded foe, unconscious of his mission of liberty under the star-spangled banner. The sorrows or the joys of one tribe are no concern of the other; thus there was seldom, if ever, any large combination of forces, and the Americans might be fighting hard in the Taraca country, or around the Lanao Lake, whilst the neighbouring clan silently and doggedly awaited its turn for hostilities. The signal for the fray would be the defiant reply of a chief to the Americans' message demanding submission, or a voluntary throwing down of the gauntlet to the invader, for the Moro is valiant, and knows no cringing cowardice before the enemy. Troops would be despatched to the _cotta_, or fortress, of the recalcitrant ruler, whence the _lantaca_ cannon would come into action, whilst the surging mob of warriors would open fire in squads, or rush forward in a body, _barong_ or kris in hand, only to be mown down, or put to flight and the _cotta_ razed to the ground. A detailed account of the military operations in these islands would be but a tedious recital of continuous struggles with the irresistible white man. In Mindanao, the Malanao tribes, occupying the northern regions around the Lake Lanao districts, seem to have offered the most tenacious resistance. On April 5, 1902, a fierce encounter with the Bacolod tribes ended with their fort being destroyed, 120 Moros killed, and 11 Americans wounded. In the following month the b.l.o.o.d.y battle of Bayan brought such disastrous results to the natives that they willingly accepted peace for the time being. In the Taraca River engagement, 10 _cottas_ were destroyed, 250 Moros were killed, 52 were taken prisoners, and the booty amounted to 36 cannon and 60 rifles. The Moros possessed a large number of Remington rifles, looted from the Spaniards, on whom they had often made surprise raids. The Bacolod and the Taraca tribes, although frequently defeated, gave much trouble long after the other districts had been forced into submission.

One of the most exciting expeditions was that of Lieutenant Forsyth, who went out reconnoitring with 15 men, marching from Parang-Parang Camp northwards. Moros came to meet him on the way to warn him not to advance, but Forsyth bravely pushed on until his party, surrounded by hundreds of hostile natives, was almost all destroyed. Forsyth and his fellow-survivors fled into an unknown region, where they lost themselves, and all would have perished had they not been befriended by a _Datto_ who enabled them to get back. Then Colonel (now Brig.-General) F. D. Baldwin set out from Malabang Camp in May, attacked and captured the _cottas_ of the Datto of Binadayan and the Sultan of Bayan on Lake Lanao, and gained a signal victory over them with a loss of seven killed and 44 wounded. Lieutenant Forsyth's horses and rifles were recovered, and the Moros suffered so severely in this engagement that it was hardly thought they would rise again. In consequence of this humiliation of the great Sultan of Bayan, many minor Lake _Dattos_ voluntarily cultivated friendly relations with the Americans. Even among the recalcitrant chiefs there was a lull in their previous activity until they suddenly swept down on the American troops twelve times in succession, killing four and wounding 12 of them. The whole Lanao Lake district was in a ferment when, on September 28, 1902, Captain John J. Pershing was detached from Baldwin's force to lead another expedition against them "composed of a battalion of the 7th Infantry, a troop of the 15th Cavalry, and two platoons of the 25th Field Artillery." [248] Pershing inflicted such a crushing defeat on the Macui Moros, destroying many of their strongholds, one Sultan and a large number of his warriors, that he was hailed with delight as the pacifier of Mindanao. The expedition returned with a total loss of only two Americans wounded, and after Pershing's heroic exploit, not only was it in the mouth of every one, "there is peace in Mindanao," but in the Report of the Secretary of War for 1902, p. 19, there is a paragraph beginning thus:--"_Now that the insurrection has been disposed of_ we shall be able to turn our attention, not merely to the slave trade, but to the already existing slavery among the Moros." But peace was by no means a.s.sured, and again Captain J. J. Pershing distinguished himself as the successful leader of an expedition in the Marahui district. Starting from Camp Vicars [249] on April 5, 1903, with 150 men, Maxim guns, mortars, and artillery, his instructions were to "explore" the north and west coast of Lake Lanao, but to overcome any opposition offered. It was quite expected that his progress would be challenged, hence the warlike preparations. Arrived at Sugud, the Moros kept up a constant fire from the hills on the American front. On the high ridge running down to the lake the Bacolod fort was clearly seen flying the battle flags of defiance. On the battlements there was a yelling crowd of Moros beating their gongs, rushing to and fro, flourishing their weapons, and firing their _lantaca_ cannon towards the Americans; but the range was too great to have any effect. The artillery was brought into action, forcing many of the Moros to try their fortunes in the open; but again and again they were repulsed, and by nightfall the Bacolod ridge was occupied by the troops. The next morning the mortars were brought into play, and sh.e.l.ls were dropped into the fort during all that day and night. On the third day Captain Pershing decided to storm the fort; bridges were constructed across the ravines, Maxim guns poured shot through the loopholes, and finally an a.s.sault party of 10 men rushed across the bridge and climbed the parapet, where they were met by the Moros, with whom they had a desperate hand-to-hand fight. It was a fine display of American pluck. The attacking party was quickly supported by more troops, who either killed or captured the defenders. Finally all the combustible portion of the fort was burnt to the ground, 12 cannon were captured, and about 60 Moros were slain. The demolition of Bacolod fort was a great surprise to the Moros, who had considered it impregnable, whilst the defeat of the savage Sultan (the _Panandungan_) destroyed for ever his former unlimited prestige among the tribe. The force was then divided, and before the troops reached camp again there were several smaller fights, including the bombardment of Calahui _cotta_. The distance traversed by this expedition was about 80 miles, the American losses being one man killed and two officers and 14 men wounded. For this signal victory the War Department cabled its thanks to Captain J. J. Pershing on May 11.

As to the management of the Moros, Captain J. J. Pershing expresses the following just opinion, viz.:--"As far as is consistent with advancement, a government by a Sultan, or a _Datto_, as the case may be, should be disturbed as little as possible; that is, the people should be managed through the _Dattos_ themselves," etc. [250]

The last general in command of the District of Mindanao, prior to the present const.i.tution of the Moro Province, was Brig.-General Samuel Sumner, who, just before his departure therefrom, wrote as follows, viz.:--"Murder and robbery will take place as long as we are in the country, at least for years to come. The Moro is a savage, and has no idea of law and order _as we understand it_. _Anarchy_ practically prevails throughout the region. To take power and control away from the Sultans and _Dattos_ until we can inaugurate and put in force a better government would add to the confusion already existing." [251]