The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir Part 12

Both Greeks and Sakas were overthrown by the Kushans. The extensive gold and copper Kushan currency, with inscriptions in the Greek script, contains the names of Kadphises, Kanishka, Huvishka, and others. In addition to the coins of these foreign dynasties, there are the purely Indian currencies, e.g. the coins of Taxila, and those bearing the names of such tribes as the Odumbaras, Kunindas, and Yaudheyas. The White Huns overthrew the Kushan Empire in the fifth century. After their own fall in the sixth century, there are more and more debased types of coinage such as the ubiquitous _Gadhiya paisa_, a degraded Sa.s.sanian type. In the ninth century we again meet with coins bearing distinct names, the "bull and horseman" currency of the Hindu kings of Kabul. We have now reached the beginning of the Muhammadan rule in India. Muhammad bin Sam was the founder of the first Pathan dynasty of Delhi, and was succeeded by a long line of Sultans. The Pathan and Moghal coins bear Arabic and Persian legends. There were mints at Lah.o.r.e, Multan, Hafizabad, Kalanaur, Derajat, Peshawar, Srinagar and Jammu. An issue of coins peculiar to the Panjab is that of the Sikhs. Their coin legends, partly Persian, partly Panjabi, are written in the Persian and Gurmukhi scripts. Amongst Sikh mints were Amritsar, Lah.o.r.e, Multan, Dera, Anandgarh, Jhang, and Kashmir.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 82. Coins.

1. Silver punch-marked coin. 2. Drachma of Sophytes (Panjab Satrap about time of Alexander). 3. Hemidrachma of Azes. 4. Copper coin of Taxila. 5.

Silver Kuninda coin. 6. Stater of Wema Kadphises. 7. Stater of Kanishka.

8. Later Kushan stater. 9. White Hun silver piece. 10. Gadhiya _paisa_.

11. Silver coin of Spalapati Deva, Hindu King of Kabul.]

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 7: See page 166.]

CHAPTER XXII

ADMINISTRATION--GENERAL

~Panjab Districts.~--The administrative unit in the Panjab is the district in charge of a Deputy Commissioner. The districts are divided into _tahsils_, each on the average containing four, and are grouped together in divisions managed by Commissioners. There are 28 districts and five divisions. An ordinary Panjab district has an area of 2000 to 3000 square miles and contains from 1000 to 2000 village estates. Devon, the third in size of the English counties, is about equal to an average Panjab district.

~Branches of Administration.~--The provincial governments of India are organized in three branches, Executive, Judicial, and Revenue, and a number of special departments, such as Forests and Irrigation. Under "Judicial" there are two subdivisions, civil and criminal. The tendency at first is for powers in all three branches to be concentrated in the hands of single individuals, development tends to specialization, but it is a matter of controversy how far the separation of executive and magisterial functions can be carried without jeopardy to the common weal.

~The Lieutenant Governor.~--At the head of the whole administration is the Lieutenant Governor, who holds office for five years. He has a strong Secretariat to help in the dispatch of business. The experiment of governing the Panjab by a Board was speedily given up, and for sixty years it has enjoyed the advantage of one man government, the Lieutenant Governor controlling all subordinate authorities and being himself only controlled by the Governor General in Council. The independence of the Courts in the exercise of judicial functions is of course safeguarded.

~Official hierarchy.~--The following is a list of the official hierarchy in the different branches of the administration:

_A._ Lieutenant Governor.

_B._ Five Judges of Chief Court (_j_).

_C._ Two Financial Commissioners (_r_).

_D._ Five Commissioners, (_e_) and (_r_).

_E._ Sixteen Divisional and Sessions Judges (_j_).

_F._ Deputy Commissioners, (_e_), (_r_) and (_crim_).

_G._ District Judges (_civ_).

_H._ Subordinate Judges (_civ_).

_J._ a.s.sistant and Extra a.s.sistant Commissioners, (_e_), (_j_) and (_r_).

_K._ Tahsildars (_e_), (_r_) and (_crim_).

_L._ _Munsifs_ (_civ_).

_M._ _Naib-Tahsildars_, (_e_) (_r_) and (_j_).

The letters in brackets indicate the cla.s.ses of functions which the official concerned usually exercises. Translated into a diagram we have the following:

Lieutenant Governor

Judicial Executive Revenue

Chief Court Financial Commissioners

Divisional and Sessions Judges Commissioners

Civil Criminal

District Judges Deputy Commissioners

a.s.st. and Extra a.s.st.

Commissioners Subordinate Judges _Tahsildars_ _Munsifs_ _Naib-Tahsildars_

~Tahsildars and a.s.sistant and Extra a.s.sistant Commissioners.~--Thus the chain of executive authority runs down to the _tahsildar's_ a.s.sistant or _naib_ through the Commissioner and the Deputy Commissioner, the _tahsildar_ being directly responsible to the latter. The a.s.sistant and Extra a.s.sistant Commissioners are the Deputy Commissioner's a.s.sistants at headquarters, and as such are invested with powers in all branches.

The _tahsildar_, a very important functionary, is in charge of a _tahsil_. He is linked on to the village estates by a double chain, one official consisting of the _kanungos_ and the _patwaris_ or village accountants whom they supervise, the other non-official consisting of the village headmen and the _zaildars_, each of whom is the intermediary between the revenue and police staffs and the villages.

~Subdivisional Officers.~--In some heavy districts one or more _tahsils_ are formed into a subdivision and put in charge of a resident a.s.sistant or Extra a.s.sistant Commissioner, exercising such independent authority as the Deputy Commissioner thinks fit to entrust to him.

~The Deputy Commissioner and his a.s.sistants.~--As the officer responsible for the maintenance of order the Deputy Commissioner is District Magistrate and has large powers both for the prevention and punishment of crime. The District Superintendent is his a.s.sistant in police matters. The Civil Surgeon is also under his control, and he has an Indian District Inspector of Schools to a.s.sist him in educational business. The Deputy Commissioner is subject to the control of the Divisional Commissioner.

~Financial Commissioners.~--In all matters connected with land, excise, and income tax administration the Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner are subject to the control of the Financial Commissioners, who are also the final appellate authority in revenue cases. As chief district revenue officer the Deputy Commissioner's proper t.i.tle is "Collector," a term which indicates his responsibility for the realization of all Government revenues. In districts which are ca.n.a.l irrigated the amount is in some cases very large.

~Settlement Officers, etc.~--With the periodical revisions of the land revenue a.s.sessment the Deputy Commissioner has no direct concern. That very responsible duty is done by a special staff of Settlement Officers, selected chiefly from among the a.s.sistant Commissioners and working under the Commissioners and Financial Commissioners. The Director of Land Records, the Registrar of Co-operative Credit Societies, and in some branches of his work the Director of Agriculture and Industries, are controlled by the Financial Commissioners.

~The Chief Court.~--It must be admitted that Panjabis are very litigious and that in some tracts they are extremely vindictive and reckless of human life. The volume of litigation is swollen by the fact that the country is one of small-holders subject as regards inheritance and other matters to an uncodified customary law, which may vary from tribe to tribe and tract to tract. A suit is to the Panjabi a rubber, the last game of which he will play in Lah.o.r.e, if the law permits. It is not therefore extraordinary that the Chief Court const.i.tuted in 1865 with two judges has now five, and that even this number has in the past proved insufficient. In the same way the cadre of divisional and sessions judges had in 1909 to be raised from 12 to 16.

~Administration of N. W. F. Province.~--In the N. W. F. Province no Commissioner is interposed between the district officers and the Chief Commissioner, under whom the Revenue Commissioner and the Judicial Commissioner occupy pretty much the position of the Financial Commissioners and the Chief Court in the Panjab.

~Departments.~--The princ.i.p.al departments are the Railway, Post Office, Telegraphs, and Accounts, under the Government of India, and Irrigation, Roads and Buildings, Forests, Police, Medical, and Education, under the Lieutenant Governor. In matters affecting the rural population, as a great part of the business of the Forest Department must do, the Conservator of Forests is subject to the control of the Financial Commissioners, whose relations with the Irrigation Department are also very intimate.

~Legislative Council.~--From 1897 to 1909 the Panjab had a local Legislative Council of nine nominated members, which pa.s.sed a number of useful Acts. Under 9 Edward VII, cap. 4, an enlarged council with increased powers has been const.i.tuted. It consists of 24 members of whom eight are elected, one by the University, one by the Chamber of Commerce, three by groups of Munic.i.p.al and cantonment committees, and three by groups of district boards. The other sixteen members are nominated by the Lieutenant Governor, and at least six of them must be persons not in Government service. The right of interpellation has been given, and also some share in shaping the financial arrangements embodied in the annual budget.

CHAPTER XXIII

ADMINISTRATION--LOCAL

~Munic.i.p.alities.~--It is matter for reflection that, while the effect of British administration has been to weaken self-government in villages, half a century of effort has failed to make it a living thing in towns and districts. The machinery exists, but outside a few towns the result is poor. The attempt was made on too large a scale, munic.i.p.al inst.i.tutions being bestowed on places which were no more than villages with a _bazar_. This has been partially corrected of late years. A new official ent.i.ty, the "notified area," has been invented to suit the requirements of such places. While there were in 1904 139 munic.i.p.alities and 48 notified areas, in 1911-12 the figures were 107 and 104 respectively. Even in the latter year 32 of the munic.i.p.alities had incomes not exceeding 1000 (Rs. 15,000). The total income of the 104 towns was Rs. 71,41,000 (476,000), of which Rs. 44,90,000 (300,000) were derived from taxation. Nearly 90 p.c. of the taxation was drawn from octroi, a hardy plant which has survived much economic criticism.

The expenditure was Rs. 69,09,000 (461,000), of which Rs. 40,32,000 (269,000) fall under the head of "Public Health and Convenience." The incidence of taxation was Rs. 2.6 or a little over three shillings a head.

~District Boards.~--The district boards can at present in practice only be treated as consultative bodies, and well handled can in that capacity play a useful role. Their income is mainly derived from the local rate, a surcharge of one-twelfth on the land revenue. In 1911-12 the income was Rs. 53,74,000 (358,000) and the expenditure Rs. 54,44,500 (363,000). The local rate contributed 51 p.c. and contributions from Government 23 p.c. of the former figure. Public works took up 41 and Education about 20 p.c. of the expenditure.

~Elections.~--Some of the seats in most of the munic.i.p.alities and boards are filled by election when any one can be induced to vote. Public spirit is lacking and, as a rule, except when party or sectarian spirit is rampant, the franchise is regarded with indifference.

CHAPTER XXIV

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE