The Ode Less Travelled Part 3

How did you do? Did you get any feeling that, crude, elementary, nonsensical and bizarre as some of the lines you've written may be, they nonetheless hint at that thing we call poetry? That nothing more than the simplest use of the simplest metre suggested to you a way of expressing thoughts, stories, reflections, ideas and pa.s.sions that ordinary speech or prose could never offer? Above all, that writing in strict metre doesn't result in stiff, formal or old-fashioned English?

I would recommend doing that exercise whenever you can. It is like performing scales on your piano or sketching sugar bowls and winegla.s.ses for practice. You just get better and better and better as the extraordinary possibilities of this most basic form begin to open up.

'Nothing more than taking a line for a walk.' That is how the artist Paul Klee described drawing. It can be much the same with poetry.

For the next few days, take lots of iambs for a walk and see where their feet lead you. With notebook in hand and a world of people, nature, thoughts, news and feelings to be compressed into iambic pentameter you are taking your first poetic steps.

II.

End-stoppingenjambmentcaesuraweak endingstrochaic and pyrrhic subst.i.tutions End-stopping, Enjambment and Caesura In our first exercise we looked at existing fragments of iambic pentameter: The woods decay, the woods decay and fall,The vapours weep their burthen to the ground.

And we had a go at producing our own: I haven't time to take your call right now,So leave a message when you hear the tone.

In both examples each line contains a single thought that finishes with the line finishes with the line. This is called end-stopping end-stopping, which we could mark like this.

The woods decay, the woods decay and fall.I haven't time to take your call right now.

The iambic pentameter would be a dull dog indeed if that were all it could do.

I have already included (in Poetry Exercise 1 Poetry Exercise 1) a couplet from Wilfred Owen where the meaning doesn't stop with the line, but RUNS ON RUNS ON through to the next: through to the next: If you could hear, at every jolt, the blood Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs No end-stopping there. The term used to describe such a running on is enjambment enjambment, from the French enjamber enjamber to stride, literally to get one's leg over... to stride, literally to get one's leg over...

His mother was a learned lady, famed For every branch of every science known. For every branch of every science known.BYRON: Don Juan Don Juan, Canto I, XSo threatened he, but Satan to no threats Gave heed, but waxing more in rage replied: Gave heed, but waxing more in rage replied:MILTON: Paradise Lost Paradise Lost, Book IV Look closely at those two examples above. Not only do they feature these run-ons or enjambments, which allow a sense of continual flow, they also contain pauses pauses which break up that flow; in the examples above it happens that these pauses are expressed by commas that serve the office of a breath, or change of gear: I shall render them like this . which break up that flow; in the examples above it happens that these pauses are expressed by commas that serve the office of a breath, or change of gear: I shall render them like this .

His mother was a learned lady famed For every branch of every science known. For every branch of every science known.So threatened he but Satan to no threats Gave heed but waxing more in rage replied: Gave heed but waxing more in rage replied: The name for such a pause or break is a caesura caesura6 (from the Latin caedere, caesum, to cut. (from the Latin caedere, caesum, to cut.7 You'd p.r.o.nounce it as in 'he You'd p.r.o.nounce it as in 'he says says YOU'RE YOU'RE a a fool'). fool').

Caesuras don't by any means have to lead on to an enjambment as in the two examples above, however. You can have a caesura in an end-stopped line.

The woods decay the woods decay and fall.St Agnes' Eve Ah, bitter chill it was!.And, spite of Pride in erring Reason's spite.One truth is clear 'Whatever is, is right.'

Not every comma will signal a caesura, by the way. In Poetry Exercise 1 I included this pair of lines from Paradise Lost Paradise Lost: Their wand'ring course, now high, now low, then hidProgressive, retrograde, or standing still.

Only the first comma of the first line is a caesura.

Their wand'ring course now high, now low, then hid.Progressive, retrograde, or standing still.

Commas in lists (serial commas and commas and Oxford Oxford commas as grammarians would call thema now archaic usage of commas, placing them before conjunctions like 'and', 'with' and 'or') do not usually herald a caesura; though some readers might argue that the second comma of the second line above commas as grammarians would call thema now archaic usage of commas, placing them before conjunctions like 'and', 'with' and 'or') do not usually herald a caesura; though some readers might argue that the second comma of the second line above could could betoken the small pause or breath that defines a caesura. betoken the small pause or breath that defines a caesura.

How can a scrutiny of such minuscule nuances possibly help you in your writing of poetry? Well, you wait until Exercise 3: I confidently predict that you will astonish yourself.

The fact is, enjambment and caesura, these twowhat shall we call them? techniques, effects, tricks, devices, tools?however we describe them, are crucial crucial liberators of the iambic line. They either liberators of the iambic line. They either extend extend or or break break the flow, allowing the rhythms and hesitations of human breath, thought and speech to enliven and enrich the verse. They are absolutely the flow, allowing the rhythms and hesitations of human breath, thought and speech to enliven and enrich the verse. They are absolutely not not a failure to obey the rules of pentameter. Let's look at the Byron and the Milton again: a failure to obey the rules of pentameter. Let's look at the Byron and the Milton again: His mother was a learned lady, famedFor every branch of every science known.So threatened he, but Satan to no threatsGave heed, but waxing more in rage replied: You might be tempted to believe that for the sake of sense the lines should should be written thus: be written thus: His mother was a learned lady,Famed for every branch of every science known.So threatened he,But Satan to no threats gave heed,But waxing more in rage replied: And Wilfred Owen's two lines could become: If you could hear, at every jolt, If you could hear, at every jolt,The blood come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs This arrangement would enable us to end-stop in our heads or out loud as we read the verse. Surely that's a better way of organising things? That is the sense sense after all, so why not therefore break the lines accordingly? This is the twenty-first century, isn't it? after all, so why not therefore break the lines accordingly? This is the twenty-first century, isn't it?

NO, d.a.m.n YOU, NO! A THOUSAND TIMES NO THOUSAND TIMES NO!.

THE ORGANISING PRINCIPLE BEHIND THE VERSE IS NOT THE.

SENSE BUT THE METRE METRE.

Metre is the primary rhythm primary rhythm, the organised background against which the secondary secondary rhythms of sense and feeling are played out. This is a rhythms of sense and feeling are played out. This is a crucial crucial point. You may think that the idea of feeling and thought being subservient to metre is a loopy one. Why should poets build themselves a prison? If they've got something to say, why don't they get on and say it in the most direct manner possible? Well, painters paint within a canvas and composers within a structure. It is often the feeling of the human spirit trying to break free of constrictions that gives art its power and its correspondence to our lives, hedged in as ours are by laws and restrictions imposed both from within and without. Poets sometimes squeeze their forms to breaking point, this is what energises much verse, but if the forms were not there in the first place the verse would be listless to the point of anomie. Without gravity all would float free: the ballet leaps of the poet's language would lose almost all their power. 'Souls who have felt too much liberty', as Wordsworth said, point. You may think that the idea of feeling and thought being subservient to metre is a loopy one. Why should poets build themselves a prison? If they've got something to say, why don't they get on and say it in the most direct manner possible? Well, painters paint within a canvas and composers within a structure. It is often the feeling of the human spirit trying to break free of constrictions that gives art its power and its correspondence to our lives, hedged in as ours are by laws and restrictions imposed both from within and without. Poets sometimes squeeze their forms to breaking point, this is what energises much verse, but if the forms were not there in the first place the verse would be listless to the point of anomie. Without gravity all would float free: the ballet leaps of the poet's language would lose almost all their power. 'Souls who have felt too much liberty', as Wordsworth said, welcome welcome form: 'In truth the prison, into which we doom/Ourselves, no prison is.' form: 'In truth the prison, into which we doom/Ourselves, no prison is.'8 Back to our caesuras and enjambments. We may not consciously be aware as we listen or read on the page, but the five beats, even when paused or run through, predominate in the inner ear. The fact that the sense sense runs through, doesn't mean the lines shouldn't end where they do. runs through, doesn't mean the lines shouldn't end where they do.

If you could hear, at every jolt, the bloodCome gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs Although there is run-on, consider in your mind and your poet's ear the different value that is given to 'blood' in the example above and in this: If you could hear, at every jolt,The blood come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs READ THEM BOTH ALOUD and note how much more stress is placed on 'blood' in the proper, pentametric layout. I'm sure you agree that Owen knew what he was doing and that the line structure should stay. and note how much more stress is placed on 'blood' in the proper, pentametric layout. I'm sure you agree that Owen knew what he was doing and that the line structure should stay.

There will always be a tiny sense of visual or aural end-stopping at the end of a line no matter how much its sense runs on.

Shakespeare, as you would expect, in the blank blank (unrhymed) verse of his plays, uses caesura and enjambment a great deal. They are keys that unlock the dramatic potential of iambic pentameter. Look at this speech from the first scene of (unrhymed) verse of his plays, uses caesura and enjambment a great deal. They are keys that unlock the dramatic potential of iambic pentameter. Look at this speech from the first scene of The Winter's Tale The Winter's Tale. Leontes, crazed by jealousy, believes his wife to have cuckolded him (that she's slept with another man). Here he is with their small son, Mamillius. Don't forget to recite or move your lips!

Go play, boy, play. Thy mother plays, and I Play too; but so disgraced a part, whose issue Play too; but so disgraced a part, whose issueWill hiss me to my grave. Contempt and clamour Will be my knell. Go play, boy, play. There have been, Will be my knell. Go play, boy, play. There have been,Or I am much deceived, cuckolds ere now,And many a man there is, even at this present,Now, while I speak this, holds his wife by th'arm That little thinks she has been sluiced in's absence, That little thinks she has been sluiced in's absence,And his pond fished by his next neighbour, by Sir Smile, his neighbour. Nay there's comfort in't, Sir Smile, his neighbour. Nay there's comfort in't,Whiles other men have gates, and those gates opened,As mine, against their will. Should all despair That have revolted wives, the tenth of mankind That have revolted wives, the tenth of mankind Would hang themselves. Physic for't there's none. Would hang themselves. Physic for't there's none.

Fourteen lines, but sixteen caesuras and seven enjambments: the verse in its stop-start jerking is as pathological and possessed as the mind of the man speaking. Compare it to another fourteen lines, the fourteen lines of the famous Eighteenth sonnet: out loud, please, or as near as dammit: Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?Thou art more lovely and more temperate.Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,And summer's lease hath all too short a date.Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,And often is his gold complexion dimmed,And every fair from fair sometime declines,By chance or nature's changing course untrimmed;But thy eternal summer shall not fadeNor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shadeWhen in eternal lines to time thou grow'st.So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.

No run-ons at all, and just one caesura,9 an absolute killer example, which gives weight to the grand and glorious resolution of the sonnet delivered by those three final feet: 'and an absolute killer example, which gives weight to the grand and glorious resolution of the sonnet delivered by those three final feet: 'and this this gives gives life life to to thee thee'. The perfectly end-stopped verse, unbroken by caesura up until that point, perfectly reflects a sense of a.s.surance, just as the broken, spasmodic breaks and runs of Leontes's ravings perfectly reflect the opposite: a crazed and unstable state of mind.

Macbeth, considering whether or not to kill Duncan and grasp his destiny, is in something of a dither too. Say this: I have no spur To p.r.i.c.k the sides of my intent but only To p.r.i.c.k the sides of my intent but only Vaulting ambition which o'erleaps itself Vaulting ambition which o'erleaps itselfAnd falls on th' other How now! what news?Macbeth, Act I, Scene 7 How insupportably dull and lifeless dramatic verse would be if made up only of end-stopped lines. How imponderably perfect a poem can be if it is is all end-stopped. all end-stopped.

I should mention here that in performance many Shakespearean actors will give a vocal (and often almost imperceptible) end-stop to a line, even when there is clear run-on in its sense. In the same way that the verse works better to the eye and inner ear when the metric structure is in clear pentameters, so spoken verse can work better when the actor represents each line with a faint pause or breath. It is a matter of fashion, context and preference. Some theatre directors hate dramatic end-stopping and are determined that meaning should take precedence over metre, others insist upon it (sometimes at the expense of clarity). An actor friend of mine, unaware of the jargon, was very alarmed on his first day as a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company to hear an old hand ask the director before the first read-through of a new production: 'Are we end-stopping, darling?' Took him three weeks to dare to ask what it meant: he had imagined it was something to do with rehearsal tea breaks.

Robert Browning, some of whose most memorable verse took the form of the dramatic monologue dramatic monologue (not verse written for the stage, but poems written as if spoken by a first-person narrator), was an absolute master of the interior rhythmic play possible within the wider structures of the metre. Out loud: (not verse written for the stage, but poems written as if spoken by a first-person narrator), was an absolute master of the interior rhythmic play possible within the wider structures of the metre. Out loud: No, friend, you do not beat me: hearken why!The common problem, yours, mine, every one's,Is not to fancy what were fair in lifeProvided it could be,but, finding firstWhat may be, then find how to make it fairUp to our means; a very different thing!BROWNING: 'Bishop Blougram's Apology' 'Bishop Blougram's Apology'

I'll let you mark that with caesuras and enjambments yourself. It is a marvellously complex and animated series of clauses and subordinate clauses, yet all subservient to the benign tyranny of pure iambic pentameter. Not a syllable out of place, not a 'cheat' (rogue extra syllable or rogue docked one) anywhere. A complicated and disgracefully self-justifying point is being made by the bishop, who is excusing his life of cheating, double-dealing and irreligious selfishness by means of subtle and sophisticated argument. The pauses, inner rhythms and alterations of momentum provided by the use of enjambment and caesura echo this with great wit and precision.

Doubt, a.s.sertion, rea.s.surance, second thoughts, affirmation, question and answer, surprise and the unstable rhythms of thought and speech are some of the effects that can be achieved with these two simple devices, caesura and enjambment, within verse that still obeys the 'rules' of iambic pentameter.

I wouldn't want you to believe that they are only for use in dramatic verse like Shakespeare's and Browning's, however. After all, it is unlikely that this is the kind of poetry you will be writing yourself. Verse as reflective and contemplative as that of Wordsworth's Prelude Prelude makes great use of them too. M makes great use of them too. MARK THE CAESURAS AND ENJAMBMENTS HERE: I shan't let you read on till you've fished out a pencil and begun, saying out loud as you go: I shan't let you read on till you've fished out a pencil and begun, saying out loud as you go: Thus far, O Friend! did I, not used to makeA present joy the matter of a song,Pour forth that day my soul in measured strainsThat would not be forgotten, and are hereRecorded: to the open fields I toldA prophecy: poetic numbers cameSpontaneously to clothe in priestly robeA renovated spirit singled out, How did it go? You might have found as I did that it was tricky to decide precisely whether or not there were caesuras in the third and seventh lines and whether there was more than one in the first. I have put the doubtful ones in brackets.

Thus far, O Friend! did I, not used to make A present joy the matter of a song,Pour forth that day my soul () in measured strains ()That would not be forgotten, and are here Recorded: to the open fields I told A prophecy: poetic numbers came Spontaneously () to clothe in priestly robe ()A renovated spirit singled out, If you read the poem to yourself I think the bracketed caesuras do do indicate the faintest of breaths or pauses which would in turn suggest the bracketed run-ons. It is not an exact science despite the claims of some scholiasts and poetasters. indicate the faintest of breaths or pauses which would in turn suggest the bracketed run-ons. It is not an exact science despite the claims of some scholiasts and poetasters.10 Of course, it is only of importance or interest to us here because we are examining the verse as budding poets eager to think about how life and variation is given to an otherwise over-drilled regiment of foot; we are not marking verse up either for performance or for correction by a teacher. Of course, it is only of importance or interest to us here because we are examining the verse as budding poets eager to think about how life and variation is given to an otherwise over-drilled regiment of foot; we are not marking verse up either for performance or for correction by a teacher.

Enjambment and caesura can pack a great comic punch, which Byron demonstrates when he opens his mock epic Don Juan Don Juan with a savage blast aimed precisely at the Wordsworth of the with a savage blast aimed precisely at the Wordsworth of the Prelude Prelude above and his fellow Lake District romantic poets, Coleridge and Southey. Byron above and his fellow Lake District romantic poets, Coleridge and Southey. Byron hated hated them and what he saw as their pretension and vain belief that theirs was the only Poesy (poetry) worthy of wreaths (prizes and plaudits). Say this out loud: them and what he saw as their pretension and vain belief that theirs was the only Poesy (poetry) worthy of wreaths (prizes and plaudits). Say this out loud: YouGentlemen! by dint of long seclusion From better company, have kept your own From better company, have kept your own At Keswick, and, through still continued fusion At Keswick, and, through still continued fusion Of one another's minds, at last have grown Of one another's minds, at last have grown To deem as a most logical conclusion, To deem as a most logical conclusion,That Poesy has wreaths for you alone:There is a narrowness in such a notion,Which makes me wish you'd change your lakes for ocean.

I am sure you have now got the point that pausing and running on are an invaluable adjunct to the basic pentametric line. I have taken a long time over this because I think these two devices exemplify the crucial point that ADHERENCE TO METRE DOES NOT MILITATE AGAINST NATURALNESS ADHERENCE TO METRE DOES NOT MILITATE AGAINST NATURALNESS. Indeed it is one of the paradoxes of art that structure, form and convention liberate liberate the artist, whereas openness and complete freedom can be seen as a kind of tyranny. Mankind can live free in a society hemmed in by laws, but we have yet to find a historical example of mankind living free in lawless anarchy. As Auden suggested in his a.n.a.logy of Robinson Crusoe, the artist, whereas openness and complete freedom can be seen as a kind of tyranny. Mankind can live free in a society hemmed in by laws, but we have yet to find a historical example of mankind living free in lawless anarchy. As Auden suggested in his a.n.a.logy of Robinson Crusoe, some some poets might be able to live outside convention and rules, but most of us make a hash of it. poets might be able to live outside convention and rules, but most of us make a hash of it.

It is time to try your own. This exercise really is fun: don't be scared off by its conditions: I'll take you through it all myself to show you what is required and how simple it is.

Poetry Exercise 3 Write five pairs of blank blank (non-rhyming) iambic pentameter in which the first line of each pair is end-stopped and there are no caesuras. (non-rhyming) iambic pentameter in which the first line of each pair is end-stopped and there are no caesuras.

Now write five pairs with (give or take) the same meaning the same meaning in which there in which there is is enjambment. enjambment.

Make sure that each new pair also contains at least two caesuras.

This may take a little longer than the first writing exercise, but no more than forty-five minutes. Again, it is not about quality.

To make it easier I will give you a specific subject for all five pairs.

1. 1. Precisely what you see and hear outside your window.

2. 2. Precisely what you'd like to eat, right this minute.

3. 3. Precisely what you last remember dreaming about.

4. 4. Precisely what uncompleted ch.o.r.es are niggling at you.

5. 5. Precisely what you hate about your body.

Once again I have had a pitiful go myself to give you an idea of what I mean.

WITHOUT caesura or enjambment: caesura or enjambment: 1 Outside the WindowI hear the traffic pa.s.sing by my house,While overhead the blackbirds build their nests.2 What I'd Like to EatI'd really like some biscuits I can dunk,Unsalted crisps would fill a gap as well.3 A Recent DreamI dreamt an airport man had lost my bagsAnd all my trousers ended up in Spain.4 Pesky Tasks OverdueI need to tidy up my papers nowAnd several ashtrays overflow with b.u.t.ts.5 My BodyToo many chins and such a crooked nose,Long flabby legs and rather stupid hair.

With caesura and enjambment: 1 Outside the WindowThe song of cars, so like the roar the seaCan sing, has drowned the nesting blackbirds' call.2 What I'd Like to EatSome biscuits, dunkedbut quick in sudden stabsLike beaks. Oh, crisps as well. Unsalted, please.3 A Recent DreamSecurity buffoons, you sent my stridesTo Spain, and all my bags to G.o.d knows where.4 Pesky Tasks OverdueMy papers seethe. Now all my writing deskErupts. Volcanic mountains cough their ash.5 My BodyThree flobbing chins are bad, but worse, a bentAnd foolish nose. Long legs, fat thighs, mad hair.

These are only a guide. Go between each Before and After I have composed and see what I did to enforce the rules. Then pick up your pencil and pad and have a go yourself.

Use the same t.i.tles for your couplets that I did for mine. The key is to find a way of breaking the line, then running on to make the enjambment. It doesn't have to be elegant, sensible or clever, mine aren't, though I will say that the very nature of the exercise forces you, whether you intend it or not, to concentrate concentrate the sense and movement of the phrasing in a way that at least gestures towards that distillation and compactness that marks out real poetry. Here's your blank s.p.a.ce. the sense and movement of the phrasing in a way that at least gestures towards that distillation and compactness that marks out real poetry. Here's your blank s.p.a.ce.

Weak Endings, Trochaic and Pyrrhic Subst.i.tutions Let us now return to Macbeth, who is still considering whether or not he should kill Duncan. He says out loud, as indeed do you: 'I have no spur...

To p.r.i.c.k the sides of my intent, but onlyVaulting ambition, which o'erleaps itselfAnd falls on th' other.How now! what news?

Forgetting caesuras and enjambments this time, have a look at the three lines as an example of iambic pentameter. Get that pencil out and try marking each accented and unaccented syllable.

Eleven syllables! There's a rogue extra syllable at the end of line 1, isn't there? An unstressed orphan bringing up the rear. The line scans like this: syllables! There's a rogue extra syllable at the end of line 1, isn't there? An unstressed orphan bringing up the rear. The line scans like this: There is more: the next next line doesn't start with an iamb at all! Unless the actor playing Macbeth says 'vault line doesn't start with an iamb at all! Unless the actor playing Macbeth says 'vaulting ambition' the line goes... ambition' the line goes...

The mighty Shakespeare deviating from metre? He is starting an iambic line with a tum tum-ti, a trochee trochee.

Actually, in both cases he is employing two variations variations that are so common and necessary to lively iambic verse that they are not unusual enough even to call deviations. that are so common and necessary to lively iambic verse that they are not unusual enough even to call deviations.

We will attend to that opening trochaic foot opening trochaic foot in a moment. Let us first examine this orphan or 'rogue' unaccented syllable at the end of the line. It makes the line eleven syllables long or in a moment. Let us first examine this orphan or 'rogue' unaccented syllable at the end of the line. It makes the line eleven syllables long or hendecasyllabic hendecasyllabic.

It results in what is called a weak weak or or feminine feminine ending (I hope my female readers won't be offended by this. Blame the French, we inherited the term from them. I shall try not to use it often). Think of the most famous iambic pentameter of all: ending (I hope my female readers won't be offended by this. Blame the French, we inherited the term from them. I shall try not to use it often). Think of the most famous iambic pentameter of all: To be or not to be that is the question Count the syllables and mark the accents. It does the same thing ('question' by the way is disyllabic disyllabic, two syllables, any actor who said quest quest-i-on would be laughed off the stage and out of Equity. It is certainly would be laughed off the stage and out of Equity. It is certainly kwestch kwestchn11 ). ).11

If you think about it, the very nature of the iamb means that if this additional trick were disallowed to the poet then all all iambic verse would have to terminate in a stressed syllable, a masculine ending... iambic verse would have to terminate in a stressed syllable, a masculine ending...

If winter comes can spring be far behind?

...would be possible, but A thing of beauty is a joy for ev(er) ...would not. Keats would have had to find a monosyllabic word meaning 'ever' and he would have ended up with something that sounded Scottish, archaic, fey or precious even in his own day (the early nineteenth century).

A thing of beauty is a joy for ay.

Words like 'excitement', 'little', 'hoping', 'question', 'idle', 'widest' or 'wonder' could never never be used to close an iambic line. That would be a ridiculous restriction in English. How absurdly limiting not to be able to end with an -ing, or an -er or a -ly or a -tion or any of the myriad weak endings that naturally occur in our language. be used to close an iambic line. That would be a ridiculous restriction in English. How absurdly limiting not to be able to end with an -ing, or an -er or a -ly or a -tion or any of the myriad weak endings that naturally occur in our language.

BUT THERE IS MORE TO IT THAN THAT. A huge element of all art is constructed in the form of question question and and answer answer. The word for this is dialectic dialectic. In music we are very familiar with this call-and-response structure. The opening figure of Beethoven's Fifth is a famous example: Da-da-da-DahDa-da-da-Derr Beethoven actually went so far as to write the following in the score of the Finale of his String Quartet in F major: Muss es sein? Must it be? Must it be?Es muss sein! It must be! It must be!

In poetry this is a familiar structure: Q: Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?A: Thou art more lovely and more temperate.

It is common in rhetoric too.

Ask not what your country can do for youBut what you can do for your country.

This is a deep, instinctive property of so much human communication. In the Greek drama and dance it was called strophe strophe and and antistrophe antistrophe, in the liturgy of the Church it is known as versicle versicle and and response response.

One might suggest that this is something to do with the in-and-out pumping of the heart itself (systole and and diastole diastole) and the very breath of life (inhalation and and exhalation exhalation). Yin and yang and other binary oppositions in thought and the natural world come to mind. We also reason dialectically, from problem to solution, from proposition to conclusion, from if if to to then then. It is the copulation of utterance: the means by which thought and expression mimic creation by taking one thing (thesis), suggesting another (ant.i.thesis) and making something new of the coupling (synthesis), prosecution, defence, verdict.

The most obvious example of a poem with an if if then then structure is of course Kipling's poem 'If', regularly voted 'the nation's favourite'. It is written in strict iambic pentameter, but with alternating feminine and masculine line endings throughout. He does this with absolute regularity throughout the poem: switching between lines of weak (eleven syllable) and strong (ten syllable) endings, which gives a characteristic swing to the verse. Try reading out loud each structure is of course Kipling's poem 'If', regularly voted 'the nation's favourite'. It is written in strict iambic pentameter, but with alternating feminine and masculine line endings throughout. He does this with absolute regularity throughout the poem: switching between lines of weak (eleven syllable) and strong (ten syllable) endings, which gives a characteristic swing to the verse. Try reading out loud each stanza stanza (or verse) below, exaggerating the (or verse) below, exaggerating the tenth tenth syllable in each line as you read, tapping the table (or your thigh) and really emphasising the last beat. Do you see how this metrical alternation precisely suggests a kind of dialectical structure? syllable in each line as you read, tapping the table (or your thigh) and really emphasising the last beat. Do you see how this metrical alternation precisely suggests a kind of dialectical structure?

If you can keep your head when all about you youAre losing theirs and blaming it on you you,If you can trust yourself when all men doubt doubt you youBut make allowance for their doubting too too,If you can dreamand not make dreams your mas master,If you can thinkand not make thoughts your aim aim;If you can meet with Triumph and DisasterAnd meet those two impostors just the same same;And meet those two impostors just the same same;If you can fill the unforgiving min minuteWith sixty seconds' worth of distance run run,Yours is the Earth and everything that's in in it, it,Andwhich is moreyou'll be a Man, my son son!

What's actually happening is that the wider line structures echo the metrical structure: just as the feet feet go weak- go weak-strong, so the lines go weak-strong.

You might put the thought into iambic pentameters: The weaker ending forms a kind of question The stronger ending gives you your reply.

The finality of downstroke achieved by a strong ending seems to answer the lightness of a weak one. After all, the most famous weak ending there is just happens to be the very word 'question' itself...

To be, or not to be: that is the question.

It is not a rule, the very phrase 'question-and-answer' is only an approximation of what we mean by 'dialectic' and, naturally, there is a great deal more to it than I have suggested. Through French poetry we have inherited a long tradition of alternating strong-weak line endings, which we will come to when we look at verse forms and rhyme. The point I am anxious to make, however, is that metre is more than just a ti-tum ti- ti-tum: its very regularity and the consequent variations available within it can yield a structure that EXPRESSES MEANING QUITE AS MUCH AS THE WORDS THEMSELVES DO EXPRESSES MEANING QUITE AS MUCH AS THE WORDS THEMSELVES DO.

Which is not to say that eleven syllable lines only only offer questions: sometimes they are simply a variation available to the poet and result in no particular extra meaning or effect. Kipling does demonstrate though, in his h.o.a.ry old favourite, that when used deliberately and regularly, alternate measures can do more. The metrist Timothy Steele offer questions: sometimes they are simply a variation available to the poet and result in no particular extra meaning or effect. Kipling does demonstrate though, in his h.o.a.ry old favourite, that when used deliberately and regularly, alternate measures can do more. The metrist Timothy Steele12has pointed out how Shakespeare, in his twentieth sonnet 'A woman's face, with Nature's own hand painted' uses only only weak endings throughout the poem: every line is eleven syllables. Shakespeare's weak endings throughout the poem: every line is eleven syllables. Shakespeare's conceit conceit in the poem (his image, or overarching concept) is that his beloved, a boy, has all the feminine graces. The proliferation of feminine endings is therefore a kind of metrical pun. in the poem (his image, or overarching concept) is that his beloved, a boy, has all the feminine graces. The proliferation of feminine endings is therefore a kind of metrical pun.

Macbeth's 'Tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow' is another celebrated example of iambic pentameter ending with that extra or hypermetrical hypermetrical unstressed syllable. Note, incidentally, that while you would not normally choose to emphasise a word like 'and' in a line of poetry, the beauty of Shakespeare's iambs here is that the rhythm calls for the actor playing Macbeth to hit those 'ands' harder than one would in a line like: unstressed syllable. Note, incidentally, that while you would not normally choose to emphasise a word like 'and' in a line of poetry, the beauty of Shakespeare's iambs here is that the rhythm calls for the actor playing Macbeth to hit those 'ands' harder than one would in a line like: I want some jam and tea and toast today With Shakespeare's line...

Tomorrow and and to tomorrow and and to tomorrow ...the futility and tedium of the succession of tomorrows is all the more manifest because of the metrical position of those 'ands'. Which of us hasn't stressed them in sentences like 'I've got to mow the lawn and and pick up the kids from school pick up the kids from school and and do the tax returns do the tax returns and and write a thank you letter write a thank you letter and and cancel the theatre tickets cancel the theatre tickets and and ring the office...'? ring the office...'?

An eleven-syllable line was more the rule than the exception in Italian poetry, for the obvious reason that an iambic hendecasyllabic line must have a weak weak ending, like-a almost-a ever-y word-a in Italian-o. Dante's ending, like-a almost-a ever-y word-a in Italian-o. Dante's Inferno Inferno is written in iambic is written in iambic endecasillabo endecasillabo.

Nel mez mezzo del del camm cammin di di nost nostra vit vita An English translation might go, in iambic pentameter: Midway up upon the the journ journey through through our our life life There would be no special reason to use hendecasyllables in translating the Inferno Inferno: in fact, it would be rather difficult. English, unlike Italian, is full of words that end with a stressed syllable. The very nature of the iamb is its light-heavy progression, it seems to be a deeply embedded feature of English utterance: to throw that away in the pursuit of imitating the metrics of another language would be foolish.

Lots of food for thought there, much of it beyond the scope of this book. The point is that the eleven-syllable line is open to you in your your iambic verse. iambic verse.

Why not nine nine syllables, you may be thinking? Why not syllables, you may be thinking? Why not dock dock a syllable and have a nine-syllable line with a weak ending? a syllable and have a nine-syllable line with a weak ending?

Let's sit sit our ourselves be be side side this this riv river Well, this docking, this catalexis catalexis, results in an iambic tetrameter tetrameter (four accents to a line) with a weak ending, that extra syllable. The point about pentameter is that it must have (four accents to a line) with a weak ending, that extra syllable. The point about pentameter is that it must have five five stresses in it. The above example has only stresses in it. The above example has only four four, hence tetra tetra meter (p.r.o.nounced, incidentally, tetr meter (p.r.o.nounced, incidentally, tetrAmeter, as pentameter is pentAmeter).

Writers of iambic pentameter always add add an unstressed syllable to make eleven syllables with five beats, they don't take off a strong one to make four. They must keep that count of five. If you choose iambic pentameter you stick to it. The heroic line, the five-beat line, speaks in a very particular way, just as a waltz has an entirely different quality from a polka. A four-beat line, a tetrameter, has its individual characteristics too as we shall soon see, but it is rare to mix them up in the same poem. It is no more a an unstressed syllable to make eleven syllables with five beats, they don't take off a strong one to make four. They must keep that count of five. If you choose iambic pentameter you stick to it. The heroic line, the five-beat line, speaks in a very particular way, just as a waltz has an entirely different quality from a polka. A four-beat line, a tetrameter, has its individual characteristics too as we shall soon see, but it is rare to mix them up in the same poem. It is no more a rule rule than it is a rule never to use oil paints and watercolours in the same picture, but you than it is a rule never to use oil paints and watercolours in the same picture, but you really have to know what you're doing really have to know what you're doing if you decide to try it. For the purposes of these early exercises, we'll stay purely pentametric. if you decide to try it. For the purposes of these early exercises, we'll stay purely pentametric.