The Meaning of Evolution Part 5

CHAPTER VI

LIFE IN THE PAST

Anyone who earnestly studies plants and animals as they exist in the world to-day cannot help wondering how the earth began and where it got its life. This is the true end and aim of geological study. The history of man seems to run back into a far distant and gloomy past.

Except for the poetical account in Genesis and the traditions of various peoples throughout the world, real history fades away into an earlier time of which there are no written records. When the delvers in the Mesopotamian plain talk to us of kingdoms running back through seven or eight or nine thousand years, we seem to be getting back to the beginnings of things. But seven or eight or nine thousand years are as nothing in comparison with the age of the earth, which runs back into a past so limitless that no man can safely a.s.sign any set figure to it. In a recent paper, Dr. Walcott, of the Smithsonian Inst.i.tution, says that the antiquity of the earth must be measured not in millions, for they are too short, nor hundreds of millions, for this carries us too far, but must surely be measured in tens of millions of years.

When we attempt to study the past we find its various epochs unequally clear to us. In human history only quite modern times are absolutely clear. The history of the Middle Ages is distinct enough for us to build for ourselves a picture of the time with reasonable hope of gaining a correct view of the state of affairs. Back of this comes the long stretch of the Dark Ages, in which here and there we have bright spots, but it will perhaps long be impossible to portray clearly the life of the people. Getting back to the Romans, things once more become reasonably plain, as is true also in the case of Greek history.

Back of this stretches the Egyptian with fair precision, and, older than it, the Babylonian and Chaldean. But these past three have not left nearly so definite an account for us as did the later civilizations of Greece and Rome.

When we try to go back of these we must change our method of study entirely. Writing is absent, and all we know of earlier men must be inferred from a few pictures that were daubed on the rocks or carved in ivory or bone, from tools made of stone or bone, from a few metal or stone ornaments, or from the bones of the men themselves. Even so, the history fades out without telling us its own beginnings. It is quite as impossible for history to write its origins as it is for man, from his own knowledge, to describe his birth.

What is true of the human story is quite as true of that of the earth.

Recent steps are very plain. We may read them with considerable confidence. As we go deeper into the rocks and find older fossils, the evidence becomes less certain. The animals differed enough from those of to-day for us to be less sure what they were like. As we keep on moving backward through time, and downward through the rocks, we find, after a while, strata in which there are evidences of life that existed long ago, but in which these traces are so altered that it is impossible to tell what sort of living things existed; we learn only that they were alive. Going back still further, these fade out. There is no knowing when the earth began; there is no knowing when life began upon the earth. It is not meant that men have not wondered, even reckoned carefully, as to how long ago each of these events occurred.

Many speculations have proved entirely useless, a few remain as yet neither confirmed nor disproved, and of such we shall speak.

For the last hundred years the theory of the earth's origin suggested by the Marquis Pierre Simon De La Place, of France, near the end of the eighteenth century, has held almost undisputed sway among men who were willing to consider the question as open to human solution. This theory is known as La Place's Nebular Hypothesis. When men began to study the heavenly bodies with the newly invented telescope, new ideas naturally sprang up. Among the objects which the gla.s.s disclosed were the nebulae, which are great clouds of fire mist, glowing ma.s.ses of gas. They are scarcely visible to the naked eye, but are among the most interesting objects in the heavens when seen through a telescope.

The other suggestive heavenly body was our sister planet, Saturn.

Besides having a full complement of moons, Saturn has around it, as distant as we would expect moons to be, three great rings. These look very much as if one's hat, with an enormously wide brim, should have the connection between the rim and the hat broken out completely, but the rim should still float around the hat without touching it and should steadily revolve as it stood there. The rings of Saturn are not solid like the suggested hat rim. They are evidently made up of a great number of very small particles, each moving around the center of Saturn. But the great cloud of them is spread out flat. At the distance which Saturn is from the earth they look as if they made a solid sheet. Furthermore, they do not form, as it were, one continuous hat rim, but it is as if the rim were broken into three circular sections, each bigger than the one inside it and separated from the next by an area nearly as wide as the ring itself.

With such material in the heavens to guide him, La Place suggested that the sun had once been an enormous fire mist scattered over an area billions of miles in diameter. This gaseous material, by the attraction of its particles for each other, began to condense and contract. When the plug is pulled from a washbasin the particles of water, in moving toward the center, in order to get out of the basin, invariably set up a rotary motion. As the particles of this diffused nebula began to gather together they, too, gave to the ma.s.s a rotary movement. This grew more and more rapid, with greater contraction, until the particles on the outer edge of the rotating ma.s.s had just so much speed that the least bit more would make them tend to fly off as mud would fly from a revolving wheel. When this point was reached there was a balance of forces which made the outermost portion remain as a ring while the rest contracted away from it, leaving it behind.

It was La Place's idea that this process had repeated itself, and ring after ring had been left behind. Finally the sun condensed and grew into a ball, occupying the center of the system. At varying distances from it were to be found either rings or planets which had been formed out of such rings. For La Place suggested that in a ring like this the material could not be quite evenly distributed. While every particle in the ring kept revolving around the sun, those in front of the densest part were slowly held back by the attraction of the thicker portion, while those behind it in rotation had their speed hastened until finally all the material in the ring had collected at one spot and a new planet was born. La Place believed that these planets formed their moons in exactly the same way, and that Saturn was simply a planet not all of whose moons had yet been formed. He believed that this happy accident served to tell us how the universe had been created.

Of course, so detailed a theory concerning anything of which we know so little has always had much ridicule thrown upon it, and yet no truly competing theory has been proposed until very recent times.

Within a few years a Planetesimal Theory has been announced, and is gaining considerable prominence, although it is too early yet to say whether it will supersede La Place's idea. In this theory, also, the suggestion comes from the heavenly bodies. With the increasing study of the nebulae, many forms of these interesting bodies have been discovered. A very common type consists of a great coherent central ma.s.s, with two or more arms extending from opposite sides in the form of a spiral. This is as if gaseous revolving nebulae had come into comparatively close proximity to a pa.s.sing body. The visitor, by its attraction, drew from the nebula a wisp of gas. The revolving motion of the nebula gave to the attracted arm the spiral form.

These twisted arms are not equally dense throughout, but have thickened knots here and there in their course. The Planetesimal Theory suggests that these thickened knots are embryo planets and the central portion of the nebulae an embryo sun. After all the material in such a body has condensed either around the knots or about the central ma.s.s a new solar system will be complete. As before stated, neither of these theories can be said to be demonstrated. Each of them has points in its favor and each has its difficulties. It is pleasant to know what men have clearly thought concerning such questions, but for a man not a trained geologist neither will carry much conviction. He will still rest with his own early conclusion that whichever shall prove to be true, for him his old formula is still valid, "in the beginning G.o.d made the heavens and the earth." He will no longer think of G.o.d as having shaped the b.a.l.l.s with his own hand and thrown them into s.p.a.ce; he will no longer dream that it all occurred within a week not more than six thousand years ago; but still to him will come the reverent conviction that, whatever the plan by which it was accomplished, it was still G.o.d's plan and G.o.d carried it out.

Now that we have tried to stretch our imagination back to the origin of our globe, the question not unnaturally comes to our mind, how long ago did all this happen? Is there any possible means of telling when the history of the earth began? All such attempts lead either to indefinite or to uncertain conclusions. Each man who essays the problem approaches it from a different side and ends with a different result. But no matter what the method of approach, all are agreed on at least one point, the enormous length of time, as counted in years, through which the earth has lasted.

One great mathematician worked on the basis of the rate of the present cooling of the earth. Counting backward to the time when the earth's surface must have been hotter, according to La Place's idea, he decided that our globe has been cool enough for the existence of life upon it for a period of somewhere in the neighborhood of one hundred million years. Those who try to study the rate at which mud is being deposited in our bays and at the mouth of our rivers, and who hence try to deduce how long it has taken to produce the thickness of all the stratified rock we know, arrive at a figure larger, rather than smaller, than that mentioned above. The same is true of those who try to count the age of the earth by the rate at which the present rivers are carrying away their river basins, and hence who calculate how long it has taken the rivers of the globe to wash away all the rocks which it is quite clear have been carried out. Still others have attempted to solve the problem by seeing how much salt the rivers are carrying into the sea, and consequently how long it must have taken the sea to become as salt as it is. A very late attempt has been based on the alteration in the minerals that show radio-activity. Conservative estimates, based on all of these, would give us a figure on which we must not count with any exactness, but which will serve at least to mark the present trend of opinion. We may put this figure at one hundred millions of years.

The following table gives us the names of the periods into which the geologist has divided the past history of the earth. The first column gives a simple name, which, in each case, is a translation of the technical name the geologist gives to the era. This technical name is also given in parenthesis. The second column shows the number of years ago at which this period may be placed, while the third column gives a series of names most of which are in use in geology and which are intended to indicate the stage of advancement of the higher animals in that particular period. Some of these names are perhaps giving way to later terms, but all of them will be understood by any geologist.

Most of them will serve to keep very clearly before the mind of the ungeological the period which he is studying. Like all such tables, this must be read from the bottom up. This arrangement is used because the oldest rocks in the series are naturally at the bottom and the newest rocks are on the top, though occasionally a region is sufficiently upset partly to reverse the order.

TABLE OF GEOLOGICAL TIMES

------------+------------------------+--------------------------- | MILLIONS OF YEARS AGO | STAGES OF ANIMAL ERAS | (VERY UNCERTAIN) | DEVELOPMENT ------------+------------------------+--------------------------- | | Age of Man Recent Life | | (Quaternary) (Cenozoic) | 0 to 5 | Age of Mammals | | (Tertiary) ------------+------------------------+--------------------------- Middle Life | | (Mesozoic) | 5 to 10 | Age of Reptiles ------------+------------------------+--------------------------- | | Age of Amphibians | | (Carboniferous) Ancient Life| | Age of Fishes (Palaeozoic)| 10 to 25 | (Devonian) | | Age of Invertebrates | | (Silurian and Cambrian) ------------+------------------------+--------------------------- Dawn Life | | Earliest Animals and (Eozoic) | 25 to 50 | Plants ------------+------------------------+---------------------------

Having seen what the scientist supposes to be the method of formation of the earth itself, it will be interesting next to consider what the biologist surmises as to the origin of the life upon the earth. Here again two explanations hold. The one, and distinctly the older of the two, says that at some time in the far distant past, under conditions which are rarely if ever duplicated, out of the lifeless material of the globe were produced simple and low forms of life. These could not properly be called either animal or plant, but partook somewhat of the nature of both. Of this there is at present no evidence whatever. The only reason we have for suggesting it is that, if we understand the past conditions on the earth, there was a time when life was impossible. Now we find life. Hence it must have arisen. This of itself, of course, furnishes no proof, but leads us to try to imagine how the transition might have come about. Every scientist who believes in this form of origin holds that if the exact conditions are repeated the result will occur once more. He may believe that no such repet.i.tion is possible, but he is confident that, if it could be, life would arise again from lifeless matter.

This process of life arising from matter that is not alive is known as Spontaneous Generation. Two hundred years ago it was supposed to occur frequently. It was common belief that the beautiful pickerel weed which borders our Northern lakes, after freezing, went into a sort of protoplasmic slime out of which pickerel were produced. The eelgra.s.s of the river was supposed to yield eels in a similar fashion. The dead bodies of animals were supposed to turn into maggots. Such crude ideas of spontaneous generation are no longer possible. The whole science of bacteriology absolutely presupposes the impossibility of spontaneous generation in the flasks and test tubes of the laboratory. One or two men of otherwise good standing in science still maintain that they are getting new life in their own test tubes, but they fail utterly to persuade the scientific world. I think it is a fair statement of the position of science to-day to say that there is no evidence whatever of spontaneous generation, excepting the presence of life upon the globe.

Not all has been said, however, on this question. The chemist is learning in the laboratory to produce many substances which, until very recent times, were produced only in the bodies of animals or plants. Dye-stuffs were originally gotten almost entirely from animal or plant material. At present the great majority of them are made in the laboratory, and in not a few cases they not only imitate the color of the older material, but actually have identically the same composition and const.i.tution. The laboratory-made material is exactly like that made by the animals or the plants.

The same is true with regard to a large number of the fruit flavors.

These are due to the presence of ethereal oils in the plant, and their exact counterparts can now be produced in the laboratory, and can serve every purpose of the fruit flavor itself. Alcohol has been produced artificially, and alcohols, which nature never dreamed of making, so far as we can tell, but which are made on her plan, are manufactured by the chemist. Last of all, sugar has recently been built up by the chemist, though the method at present is so expensive that it cannot possibly compete with the production of the commodity from the cane and the beet. As in the case of alcohol, all the sugars that nature makes can now be made artificially, and others of the same general plan which she seems not to have as yet devised can be produced within the laboratory.

Attempts have been made to manufacture proteids, but these have as yet eluded the efforts of the chemist. He is beginning, however, to come nearer understanding their composition, and when he once clearly comprehends that he may be able to reproduce them.

One of the German chemists is convinced that the nuclein in the nucleus of the cell is not a very complicated compound. Under such conditions it is not a matter of surprise that the physiological chemist should be constantly dreaming that he may at some time produce living matter in the laboratory. To the ordinary mind it scarcely seems possible. We are so entirely sure that life is not amenable to physics or chemistry that we can hardly conceive of the possibility of its originating out of matter in the test tube. If it does so come, and when it does so come, this will not prove that life is a less n.o.ble and less wonderful thing than we thought. It will only prove that chemistry and physics are more n.o.ble and more wonderful than we dreamed.

There is another way of approaching this life problem, though it seems to be rather a begging of the question than a solution of it. Of recent years it has been discovered that even the very low temperatures obtained by evaporating liquid air, say three hundred degrees below zero, Fahrenheit, do not kill seeds or spores of mold.

The s.p.a.ce between the planets is undoubtedly extremely cold. We have always supposed it to be entirely too cold for life to exist in it.

But we laid little stress on the fact because we had no thought of any possible life existing there. But the discovery that seeds and spores can live uninjured through extreme cold has led to an interesting suggestion. This is that when the earth became adapted to the presence of life it was infected by germs transported on meteors from some other system. According to this theory, organic dust through s.p.a.ce is ready to infect any planet which offers the conditions under which life may arise. Of course this theory does not explain the origin of life. It pushes back that origin a little farther or supposes that life is as old as matter itself. Again we may leave to the scientist the discussion and the elaboration of this or any other theory he may promulgate concerning the origin of life. When he has established clearly the process and can produce life we will accept his explanation; meanwhile, we will always be interested in his attempts to solve the problem, but still our simple formula, "in the beginning G.o.d," serves our present needs and will satisfy us better than any as yet unverified hypothesis.

When we find through scientific investigation how life arises we will simply know how G.o.d created it in the beginning.

The next step in the understanding of early life is to study under the microscope the simplest forms which we can find in existence to-day.

This, while far easier of execution than the problems which we have thus far considered, is still not without serious difficulties. But every day brings us nearer to the understanding of the structure of living things. Life the scientist cannot see. All he can study is living matter. Whether life can exist separate from living things is a problem outside the range of his, at least present, possibilities.

Therefore, concerning it he has no answer whatever to give. But when we come to study living things we find that all life is a.s.sociated with protoplasm. This apparently foamy, jellylike, transparent material is the only living substance in all the world. Animals and plants are larger or smaller collections of the little ma.s.ses of protoplasm which we know as cells. The lowest animals are each made up of but a single cell. This consists of a small ma.s.s of protoplasm surrounded almost always by a thicker skin or covering, known as the cell wall and enclosing a complicated kernel known as the nucleus. The protoplasm seems to be the living substance itself. The cell wall is not a simple dead sc.u.m on the outside of the protoplasm, but is itself able to do certain things which can only, so far as we know, be done by living substances. For instance, of two materials dissolved in the water in which the cell floats, the wall may permit one to soak into the animal and keep the other out. The one allowed to enter will usually be found good to be used for food by the cell. The nucleus seems to store within itself the record of its past history and thus enable the cell to do in the future what its ancestors did in the past.

Such simple cells can exhibit in very low form all the activities the higher animals show in much more elaborate development. A one-celled animal can move about, can recognize the proximity of food, can engulf its food and digest it, can build up its own substance out of the digested food, can absorb oxygen, can use this oxygen in the burning of its own substance to produce its own activities, can act in response to sensation gained from outside, can throw off its waste matter produced by its own activities, and can grow. When the proper time comes its nucleus can split in two, the cell itself enclosing the nucleus can separate into two cells, each of which can grow to the size of the parent cell and repeat its life. This is as simple an animal as we have yet discovered. Every kitchen drain swarms with such creatures. On a summer day the stagnant pools are full of them. The simplest microscope will show them clearly. This is life in its lowest terms with which we are acquainted. With such life, it seems to us, the animal and plant world must have started their existence, when first the earth began to teem with living matter.

If, then, we may form any judgment concerning the first living things upon the globe by considering the simplest creatures that live here to-day, certain facts seem clear. In the first place, life began in the water, and for a long time was only to be found in the water.

Single cells are so small and dry out so easily that it is necessary to their existence that they should be kept entirely moist by the presence of water all about them. It is true many of them will stand drying, but while they are thus dried they can scarcely be said to be much more than just alive. They are utterly inactive, or, as we say, they are dormant. In such conditions they become covered with a tough skin, almost a sh.e.l.l, and their protoplasm is itself nearly dry. Under these circ.u.mstances the life processes hardly continue at all. The protozoa, as these small animals are called, tolerate drought for a time; but they only live, in any sense worth calling living, when water is abundant and is neither very warm nor very cold. It is safe to say that the early life of the world formed in the oceans of the time. So absolutely is the habit fixed upon cells of protoplasm that even to-day the activities of the cells of higher animals depend upon the presence of moisture. The cells of our own bodies are to-day living, as it were, in an ocean. Everyone can remember far enough back to recall some time at which a tear slipped from his own eye onto his own tongue; we know our tears are salt. The tongue has tasted, undoubtedly, the perspiration from the lip on more than one summer day; this perspiration tasted as salt as the tear itself. The lymph that const.i.tutes the "water" of a so-called "water blister" is also salty, and even the little blood one gets into his mouth in trying nature's method of stanching the flow from a cut finger gives the impression that it contains a little salt. Every fluid of the body is salty, and every cell of the body is bathed in salt water. It is too long since the ancestors of our cells swam in the seas of the Eozoic time for us to a.s.sert with any positiveness that the ancestral habit is responsible for this trait in the descendants. Sure it is that to-day our cells, like their ancestors of old, live in water, and this water is slightly salty--as were probably the Archaean seas.

The geologist tries as best he may to build up the geography of the earth in the past. He endeavors to judge from the rocks as he now finds them, where the seas, the bays, the dry land, and the mountains of earlier geological times lay. The present aspect of the earth is very recent, and earlier ages must have shown an entirely different distribution of land and water. The North American continent was certainly very much smaller than it is now. The first known lands lay close to the Atlantic seaboard and probably extended out into the water some distance beyond the present sh.o.r.eline. The stretch of continent was narrow, and grew narrower as it went southward. In what is now the Canadian district, a considerable expanse probably existed in very early times. Then a great internal sea, shallower than the Atlantic, stretched its unbroken sheet over almost the entire area now occupied by the United States, while only a comparatively small hump of earth, ending in a narrower strip, lay where the great Western plateau now rears its enormous bulk.

A large portion of the history of the North American continent, with its developing animals and plants, is tied up with the gradual shrinkage of this interior sea. Slowly across the Canadian district, the Eastern and Western lands became connected with each other, while the waters progressively were pushed down the continent, which was steadily growing from the east and from the north, though less slowly from the west, into this internal sea. To-day only the Gulf of Mexico remains as evidence of the broad stretch that once extended through to the Arctic Ocean and west beyond the present position of the Rocky Mountains.

How this great Eastern backbone of the continent was produced, what sort of animals lived while these rocks were being formed, or whether this preceded entirely the existence of life upon the earth, no man to-day may surely say. In the oldest of the rocks there are beds of graphite, from which lead pencils are made. This substance is believed by the geologists to be, like coal, the remains of vegetable life. But these early rocks have been so heated and baked, so twisted and bent, that whatever forms of life they once held are now obliterated, or so altered as to give us no idea of what may have been their character.

So far as anyone can now see, this past history is wiped out forever and it will be impossible for men ever to demonstrate the character of this early life. Speculations, more or less certain, will arise. They may, after a while, seem so clear as to receive the acceptance of the scientific mind. Yet the truth remains that the early history of the earth, so far as animals and plants are concerned, is probably lost forever.

The most striking feature concerning the earliest layers of rocks in which good fossils are found abundantly is the complexity of the life.

With the exception of the backboned animals, every important branch of the animal kingdom is represented, and it is just possible that we have even earlier forms of the vertebrates themselves. This, to the evolutionist, is very disconcerting. To find the great groups all well developed at least twenty-five million years ago and to find only fossils built on the same lines since almost nonplusses him. When the geologist tells him what an enormous length of time preceded the rocks in which he finds these fossils and how absolutely these earlier strata have been altered by the later geological activities he easily understands why it is impossible to find fossils in them. As a consequence, the evolutionist is forced to believe that all the earliest animals have left no clear traces behind them. Life as he first surely knows it is already extremely varied and quite well developed in some of its groups. The early animals were as well adapted to the times in which they lived as are the great majority of the animals of to-day. The reader must not infer this to mean that the animals of those days were like our present animals. They were not. No one traveling in a far country could find there animals as strange to him as would be those of the earlier stratified rocks. In these there were no fishes as we know them to-day, not a single member of the frog and salamander cla.s.s, not a reptile, not a bird, not a mammal, and probably no air-living insects. It is highly doubtful whether there was any animal living upon the land and breathing the air twenty-five million years ago.

We start our study, then, at the period known as the Palaeozoic era, the era of the ancient life of the globe, beginning twenty-five million and ending ten million years ago. The first of the three sections into which this period of life is divided is known as the Silurian age, the age of invertebrates. The word invertebrate is an unscientific but convenient term under which we embrace all the animals below those having backbones. This period is called the age of invertebrates because, although there is an enormous wealth of animal and plant life in the Silurian, there are no backboned animals except the lowest kinds of fishes. It was supposed for a long time that even fishes were absent. Now we know they existed, but they were small and inconspicuous. In this period corals were wonderfully abundant, particularly in the great internal sea which spread over what is now known as the Mississippi Valley. Everywhere over this region must have grown in the shallow water great numbers of creatures called crinoids or stone lilies. They were attached to the bottom by slender stems, sometimes many feet long. These stems are jointed, and when they became fossilized the sections were apt to separate, with the result that over a wide area in the Mississippi Valley it is very common to find these little segments which look not unlike checkers. At the end of the stem was a rounded head, with a mouth at the top, and around the mouth were branched, feathery arms. The creatures must have been exquisitely beautiful, but they have completely disappeared from the face of the earth, with the exception of a very few, found in the obscurity of the almost fathomless depths of the great ocean. Here they remain as peculiar relics, only preserved by the unvarying conditions in the deep sea from the extinction that has met their sisters.

Those who are familiar with our seacoast will know an interesting creature known as the horseshoe crab, or king crab, though in reality it is not a crab at all. It is rather more nearly related to the spiders than the crabs, though no one but a technical zoologist could possibly a.s.sociate them together. The ancestors of these king crabs were the finest and best developed animals in this early Palaeozoic time. These creatures had bodies jointed like the tail of a lobster.

They were wide and flat, instead of narrow and rounded like a lobster, and each joint of the body was highest in the middle and distinctly lower at the two sides, thus forming three regions along their backs.

This structure gives to these creatures the name of trilobites. These animals were the kings of the early ocean. They had an interesting habit of curling up nose to tail before they died, and, as a result, a large proportion of all the trilobite fossils we find are curled in this peculiar manner.

After these forms the most abundant fossils we find in Silurian times were creatures that at first sight looked as if they might be related to the clams. These are known as lampsh.e.l.ls, because one sh.e.l.l projects beyond the other and curls up at the tip so as to resemble the clay lamps which are dug out of old Roman towns. The lampsh.e.l.ls also have nearly disappeared in modern times. Simple creatures belonging with our present crab and snail had begun to make their appearance, but they were not as abundant as we find them later on.

The third group of the mollusks to which the nautilus and squid of to-day belong is very abundantly represented in the Silurian by fossils with coiled-up sh.e.l.ls. As for the plant life of the time, it is exceedingly difficult to say much about it. There must have been nothing but marine plants, and these must have been on the general line of the seaweeds. Little can be definitely said concerning them.

The next period of the Palaeozoic is known as the Devonian age, or the age of fishes. Now the backboned animals first make their clear and unmistakable appearance. There are remains in the Silurian which show that there must have been a few fishes at that time. The Devonian is so full of them and they are so well developed and so diversified that this period is definitely known as the "age of fishes." They do not closely resemble the fishes of to-day, but anyone would recognize most of them for what they are. Their bodies were covered, not so much with scales as with heavy plates, often arranged like tiles, those on the forward half of the animal being often larger than those surrounding the rest of the body. The creature was encased, as it were, in armor.

These were the rulers of the Devonian seas. The land, as yet, was probably nearly without animal life, the creatures thus far being almost confined to the water. A few insects make their appearance and a few thousand-leggers are running around among the lowly plants; a few spider-like animals have arisen; there are a few snails that have left the water and taken to the land. Altogether only the dawn of a land fauna is to be noticed. In the Devonian the plants are creeping up upon the ground. Ferns are growing about everywhere, though they are not exactly our ferns, but are rather a sort of intermediate form between these and the present seed plants.

Now comes an entire change in the history of the world. By some means a rise in the bottom seems to have cut off a great part of the internal sea from the outer ocean and to have converted it into a widespread shallow bay, much like the sounds which lie back of the islands that line the Atlantic Coast from New Jersey to Florida. Just as this coastal region to-day is covered with salt marshes, so the whole internal sea of the Carboniferous period was converted into a great swamp. Sometimes an oscillation of the crust of the earth brought this marsh above the surface of the sea and a luxuriant growth of plants spread over it. Then a sinking of the bottom allowed the mud and sand to wash down the sh.o.r.es, and spread out over the marsh, and enclose the muck of the marsh under a layer of sand or clay. Another lift of the bottom would start the swamp growing once more, and a series of alternations between marsh land and sound seems to have followed. The plants of this period are not the plants of to-day, though we still have some very degenerate representatives of them. The common horse-tail, with its angular, slender, leaflike branches and its club-shaped spore-bearing body, is a modern degenerate descendant of the treelike calamites of the Carboniferous forest. A creeping evergreen, known by the name of clubmoss, is in like manner the modern degenerate remnant of the scalestem and sealstem, which were the great trees of the forests of the coal period.

All over the surface of the marsh, between these big trees, grew the ferns. While the coal itself was formed generally from the scalestems and sealstems, the most common fossils found in the shales that lie upon the coal beds are the ferns which covered the surface of the marsh.