The Masters and their Music Part 3

Beethoven was the son of a very dissipated tenor singer of the chapel of the Elector of Cologne, and the family had been musical for several generations. The boy learned to play the viola and violin as well as the piano while he was still very young indeed, and by the age of eleven was regularly engaged as viola player in the orchestra and had gained such proficiency upon the piano that it was popularly said of him that he could have played a good part of Bach's "Well-tempered Clavier" by heart. While still but a lad he succeeded informally to the post of a.s.sistant conductor of the orchestra, and it was his duty to prepare the music for the men, making the abridgments, emendations, and rearrangements that might be advisable to adapt old music to the then modern orchestra. In this way he gained, no doubt, much of his marvelous acquaintance with orchestral effect. When he was fifteen he was regularly appointed organist to the private chapel of the Elector, and he was left in charge of the orchestra for months together in the absence of the head director, Neefe.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Ludwig van Beethoven]

He began to compose by the time he was ten, but he did not manifest any especial precocity in this direction: his published compositions with opus number contain only one movement, it is believed, which he wrote before he was twenty or twenty-one years of age. After the death of his father he was left, as he had been practically for some years before, the responsible head of the family, with the care of his mother and his younger brothers. He remained in Bonn, with one visit to Vienna in 1787, until he was about twenty-two years of age, when he left Bonn definitely and took up his abode in Vienna. Here he studied with the best masters attainable--Haydn, then in his prime, Salieri, and others. His first published compositions with opus numbers--three trios--date from the Vienna time.

In Vienna he lived all the remainder of his life--about thirty-five years. In the earlier part of this period he was considered one of the great pianoforte virtuosi of his time; his playing was distinguished for force, strong contrasts, musical quality, and, above all, pathetic expression. Czerny states that it was not unusual for a company of the Viennese aristocracy to be affected to tears by the playing of this master. His published works were generally criticized as being too bold and unconventional.

As Beethoven had the fortune to live to quite a good age, he gradually established his position with regard to the earlier compositions, inasmuch as by repeated hearings they sooner or later commended themselves to the critics as well as to the public; but by the time this had come to pa.s.s with the works of a certain period, he had advanced and composed others, which now in turn succeeded to the charge of being too advanced and forced. These in turn were later on accepted, only to leave a still later stratum of his compositions under the same condemnation which had been the portion of the earlier works.

Nevertheless, the want of recognition of Beethoven by his contemporaries has been greatly overrated. He enjoyed a fairly comfortable income, as such things went among the middle-cla.s.s Viennese of his time, and during most of his career he was esteemed to be probably the most eminent composer living.

As compared with the works of Handel or Bach, those of Beethoven do not make a great display in volume. Nevertheless, there are thirty-two piano sonatas, ten violin sonatas, nine symphonies for full orchestra, five pianoforte concertos, twenty-one sets of variations for piano alone, sixteen string quartets, and a very large ma.s.s of chamber music of other sorts. There are two ma.s.ses, one opera, and above one hundred songs.

As generally stated, the characteristic point of difference between what we call the cla.s.sical and the romantic in the art of music lies in the feeling actuating the composer, and consequently embodied more or less successfully in his music. In the older practice, especially that of the Netherlandish contrapuntal composers of the sixteenth century, the motive of composition was that of producing a musical piece more elaborate, more imposing, or more sonorous than previous works; or, perhaps, the more commonplace conception of producing a piece as good as previous works. The purely musical (conceived from a technical standpoint) remained the moving principle with the composer. With the invention of opera, about 1597, A. D., and the active development which followed for a century after, a new principle came into operation, namely, the expression of dramatic contrasts and situations, and so at length the expression of intense individuality--the working of strong individualities under the clash of tragic situations.

Along with the invention and development of opera, during the period here mentioned, the mastery of the violin was carried forward with great results to the art of music. About 1685, Archangelo Corelli published his first collection of pieces for the violin, and in these are found what are practically about the first examples of a well-developed lyric melody, of the kind we now mean when we speak of "bel canto"--the type of melody made the very crux of the art of Italian singing. This impa.s.sioned, sustained, and expressive melody took with wonderful rapidity and was almost immediately adopted into opera, the ideal of which in the beginning had been that of an artistic and dramatically expressive delivery of the text. Now, melody as such has little to do with the dramatic delivery of the text. In a sustained melody--as in "Home, Sweet Home," to quote a simple type--it is first of all a question of sustained sentiment; whereas in a well-determined declamation it is first of all a matter of effective delivery of the words and phrases from an elocutionary standpoint, allowing the voice all the stops, interruptions, shocks, and variations of intensity requisite for effective delivery. But by the time this sustained melody had been introduced into high art (it seems to have made a beginning earlier in folk-song, although we have no precise indications upon the subject) the mere delivery of a text, somewhat after the manner of a liturgical intoning, no longer satisfied the demands of opera.

Music grew by what it fed upon. The violin, which Monteverde had placed in the position of honor at the head of the orchestra in 1608, had grown upon the ears of the people; and there was a need felt for something more impa.s.sioned, but at the same time more distinctively musical, than the mere declamation of the first opera, no matter how sing-song that delivery might be made. Hence arose the aria, which practically is a prolongation of a single moment of the dramatic situation. The Arias, at first and for quite a long time later, had very few words, and these were repeated over and over, as we find still in the well-known arias from Handel's "Messiah." Thus opera came into possession of a simple and sustained melody, patterned after the cantilena of the violin; and it was employed for marking the successive points of the dramatic action. That is to say, as the drama unfolded, one new situation after another developed itself. Each new entrance of a dramatic person made a new complication and a new situation, brought to the attention of the hearer by means of the lines and then enforced by the aria, which the singer of greatest momentary importance had to sing. That these arias very soon degenerated into show pieces for virtuoso singers was an accident due to the popularity of the operatic stage, the development of the new art of singing, and a delight in the human voice as a musical instrument. It has no concern with our present subject.

Moreover, it inevitably happened that as composers multiplied and competed for the favor of the public, they tried more and more to bring out in their music the very innermost pa.s.sions and pa.s.sing feelings of the leading individuals in the play; hence the art of expressive music was greatly developed, and the ears of the public learned gradually to feel after and enjoy the human heart-beat in the music. Thus music pa.s.sed beyond the stage of working for itself as a development of musical forms or science of construction, and became more and more, in opera, the expression of individualities and moods. At the same time that this tendency was working for making the music more expressive, the necessity of pleasing the public tended also in the opposite direction of pleasing the hearer by means of agreeable combinations of tone-colors, delightful symmetries of tone-forms, and the like. So at the very time when composers of one cla.s.s were laboring in opera for the development of deep expression, those of another cla.s.s were working no less effectually for making the music merely shallow and pleasing.

Light operas dealing with shallow situations--comedy, farce, expressed by means of light and pleasing music--came to occupy more and more the operatic stage, where, after all, the question of amus.e.m.e.nt will always prevail.

All of these different tendencies came later on to their expression in music purely instrumental. We have seen already how Bach managed to compose truly expressive music which, nevertheless, is first of all strong music, yet highly humoristic and fanciful. Then Haydn and Mozart introduced various types of pleasing and simply expressive melody, but it is only in occasional moments that their music touches the deeper feelings of the heart. It is music to admire for its cleverness, to enjoy at times for its sweetness and tenderness, and its fresh melodic symmetry; but it is only in very rare moments that the accent of emotional individuality is given.

In Beethoven we find this quality for the first time ill.u.s.trated in instrumental music; and, along with this occasional accent of intensity, we have also a great and inexhaustible variety of moods and manners appertaining to the different sides of the mighty individuality of this great tone-poet. Along with this variety of moods, which in their inner nature must be regarded as representing different facets of individuality, we have also in Beethoven a certain comprehensive element. Everything that he says to us belongs somehow to a larger whole, and that larger whole is the entire man of the composer. It is like the conversation of some highly gifted person, which, while lasting perhaps for only a few minutes, nevertheless affords us a glimpse into a remarkable personality, and appears in our memory as a chapter accidentally revealed out of the entire soul of the talker.

Hence in trying to form an idea of the individuality of Beethoven and of the range and peculiar beauty of his music, we have to learn his most characteristic moods in order to get the range of his genius; and then to see how he combines these widely different moods into a whole--as he does in his sonatas and symphonies. Accordingly, this first program begins with several pieces, comparatively small in compa.s.s, but directly ill.u.s.trating the variety of his humoristic tendencies. All of these little pieces, moreover, have that accent of intense individuality mentioned above--an accent very much more observable in Beethoven than in any of his predecessors, and surpa.s.sed only by Schubert and Schumann later. The latter, it may be antic.i.p.ated, is the most humoristic of all composers of instrumental music.

There are certain conditions of largeness in a piece of music intended to say something without words, and to work up to an imposing climax, which give it a different form from what is practicable in pieces having a text for doing a part of the talking. In order to reach a great effect, an instrumental music piece has to last for some time, and to continue quite a while in the same movement, as to rate of pulsation and frequency of measure accent. It has to work within a single tonality--remain in one key or revolve around one key in such a manner as to preserve its own unity as a single being. Hence arise the long movements of the sonata and symphony. It is not possible to arrive at similar impressions upon hearers by the use of shorter, disjointed movements. Only by carrying a movement on for some time, and so developing it as to impress some one idea as central, and at the same time to arrive eventually at some kind of a climax or goal, can a serious instrumental movement become expressive and effective.

In Mozart these long movements have nothing like the unity of those of Beethoven. A beautiful variety prevails, and the main ideas are repeated a sufficient number of times; but it is for beauty rather than for completing a cycle of moods or a cycle of soul-experiences. Or if a cycle, then a cycle of pleasant and youthful experiences. In Beethoven this is not the case. When he is much in earnest he takes plenty of time for saying his say, and says it so thoroughly that you are quite sure of what he is at. This will be shown in the present program by means of the Sonate Pathetique, and phases of the manner will appear in all the selections.

PROGRAM.

Selections of a quasi-lyric character: Menuetto in E-flat. Opus 31, No. 3.

Menuetto in D major. Opus 10, No. 3.

Subject from Allegretto from Sonata, opus 90. Thirty-two measures.

Andante from Sonata, opus 27, No. 1.

Formal Variations: Andante and Variations. Sonata in G major. Opus 14, No. 2.

Andante, from Sonata Appa.s.sionata. Opus 57.

Humoristic Variations and Moods; Theme and Variations. Opus 26.

Scherzo in C, Sonata in C. Opus 2, No. 3.

Allegretto from "Moonlight Sonata." Opus 27, No. 2.

Scherzo in A-flat, Sonata. Opus 31, No. 2.

Sonata-piece: Allegro (first movement), from Sonata in G. Opus 14, No. 2.

Allegro (first movement), Sonata in F minor. Opus 2, No. 1.

Sonata-piece, Impa.s.sioned; Introduction and Allegro (first movement), Sonate Pathetique.

Opus 13.

The minuet proper, in the first selection, is a simply expressive folk-song throughout its first period. It is only at the beginning of the second period, with the dissonant C-flat, that something different comes to ill.u.s.tration. The distinction of the mood is further ill.u.s.trated in the trio which follows, where the chords by their skips and their delightful changes afford a most agreeable and charming contrast with the main subject. (It is upon this trio that Saint-Saens has written his lovely variations for two pianos, four hands.)

The minuet in D, from the very strong Sonata in D major, opus 10, affords very strong contrasts before we pa.s.s beyond the minuet proper.

The first period (eight measures repeated) is purely lyric and very lovely. The second period starts out with an imitative bit, quite in the manner of fugue, one voice after another responding in a vigorous and spirited manner. When this is completed by the delightful return of the princ.i.p.al subject, we are led to a trio in the related key of G major, which is in a totally different style. It goes like a scherzo, and when it in turn has been completed the main minuet returns with most agreeable effect. At the end, a short coda. Both these selections contain much which is not purely lyric, but rather thematic.

This occurs always in the trios, and in the second period of the minuet in D.

The next selection is the beginning of the beautiful closing movement of the Sonata, opus 90. This movement takes the place of a slow movement in this sonata, and it is entirely in lyric style, except where the imperative need of relief has led to the introduction of less connected and sustained matter. The melody itself is one of the best of Beethoven's. The ill.u.s.tration comprises the first thirty-two measures.

In the next division of selections we come upon the Beethoven faculty of diversifying a musical theme in the form of variations. The examples here given represent certain of the simpler phases of this part of his art, and if the student is ambitious in this direction he might read for himself the variations upon the waltz in C, or the famous thirty-two variations, in which endless varieties are obtained from a very simple theme. A still more highly developed example of this art is found in the last sonata of all, opus 111; but these are too difficult for our present use.

The theme and variations in C, from the Sonata in G, opus 14, are easy and pleasing. The theme itself affords a very pretty contrast between the staccato of the first period and the close legato of the second period. Then the sweetness of it is relieved by the strong syncopations which break it up, toward the end (measures 17 and 18).

The first variation has the melody in the tenor, unchanged excepting to make it legato. The right hand deals mainly with syncopated repeated notes.

The second variation is much more broken. The left hand plays the ba.s.s upon the beat, while the right hand comes in with a chord containing the melody at the half beat. The third variation brings the melody again in the ba.s.s, with an accompaniment figure in sixteenths for the right hand. At the end there is a lovely coda of six measures.

Throughout these variations the harmony and the melody have not been changed. Only the place of the melody and the rhythm of the accessory accompanying figures have been changed.

A still more remarkable ill.u.s.tration of this phase of the Beethoven genius is found in the andante and variations which form the second movement of the Sonata Appa.s.sionata, opus 57. Here the variations are not indicated in the notation, but the player has to find them for himself, which is easy enough, because the two periods of the theme, each of eight measures, are exactly repeated in the following variations.

The theme itself has a church-like character, almost "sacred." This is due to the first harmonic step from tonic to subdominant and back again, in the manner of the "Amen" cadence so well known in anthems.

In the second period there is an intense and almost strained expression due to the chord of 4-2, the seventh low in the ba.s.s. The first variation plays the melody in the same place as in the theme, and in the same chords; but the ba.s.s enters a half beat later and holds over, so that a restless and searching expression results. The second variation, again, is very reposeful. The melody is only suggested in the upper tones of the right-hand part, and the sixteenth motion is intended to have a certain chord-like character; meanwhile the ba.s.s has a part somewhat like a melody suitable for 'cello. The third variation brings the melody high in the treble (later changing again to the left hand in the middle range of the piano), while the left hand performs an arpeggio figure in thirty-seconds. At the end a lovely coda of sixteen measures, recalling the theme in its original form. Throughout these variations not only is the harmony and melody of the theme never varied, excepting in time of coming in, but the spirit of the theme is everywhere retained. Observe that the coda is not concluded, but interrupted by the entrance of a diminished chord, leading into the key of F minor. In place of this chord, end with a chord of D-flat, directly after the dominant chord preceding the diminished chord, when the finale is not to be played.

Quite different from the foregoing are the highly humoristic variations of the Sonata, opus 26. These, being designated in the copy, require only mention and characterization. The theme is three periods in length, the second opening with a syncopation. The first variation follows the harmony of the theme, but in a broken manner, not alone in the cutting up into sixteenth notes, but also in changes of position upon the keyboard. This tendency to excitement continues in the second variation, where the melody is in the ba.s.s, in octaves broken into sixteenth notes. The third variation changes the mode to minor, and the musical treatment contains strong syncopations, implying much suppressed pa.s.sion. The fourth variation is a scherzo, bounding from one point of the keyboard to another, like a musical Ariel. The fifth variation returns to the harmony and manner of the theme, but in the first eight measures the melody is held in reserve, suggested rather than fully brought out, in order that the complete appearance of the melody, legato, in the ninth measure shall be more effective. The whole closes with a beautiful coda of fifteen measures. (Count back from the end, if you do not find it at first.)

Still more humoristic is the scherzo from the Sonata in C, opus 2, No.

3. Here the princ.i.p.al subject is quite in fugue style, excepting the order of keys. In place of answering in the fifth, it answers in the octave.

It is unnecessary to add that this is a pure fancy-piece, the imitations being unexpected and capricious, and never for the sake of completing a pattern or form. The trio is a complete contrast, and very free and effective upon the keyboard. Then, after the return of the scherzo, we have a delightful coda of twenty-three measures.

Less p.r.o.nounced, but very beautiful, is the allegretto from the so-called "Moonlight Sonata," opus 27, No. 2. This is gentle, and designed to mediate between the intense sadness of the first movement and the equally intense and impa.s.sioned sorrow and longing of the finale.

The sonata-piece is one of the most serious and diversified movements known to music, and while continuous and characterized by great unity, it is also rather complicated. Hence it will not be properly appreciated except by those who observe the leading ideas as they enter and recall them when they turn up again in the course of the treatment and development. When a sonata is written for orchestra it becomes a symphony, in which form the different ideas are more easily followed because they derive a certain individuality from the tone-color of the instrument first announcing them. When an artist plays a sonata he seeks to intensify the individuality of the leading ideas and thus aid the hearer in recognizing and remembering them.

The first example of sonata-piece is the rather light and pleasing allegro which begins the Sonata in G, opus 14, No. 2. The Princ.i.p.al subject lasts through twenty-four measures, the Second entering in the key of D with the beginning of the twenty-fifth measure. The Conclusion begins with the forty-seventh measure. Counting from the double bar, the Elaboration lasts, including the pedal point upon the dominant which prepares for bringing back the Princ.i.p.al, sixty-one measures. There the first part begins over again.

The first movement of the Sonata in F minor, opus 2, No. 1, is shorter and the subjects less marked than in any other sonata of Beethoven. It also has less "stuffing," the ideas following with very little pa.s.sage work between them. The Princ.i.p.al lasts twenty measures, the Second beginning with the F-flat in the soprano at the end of the twentieth measure. The Conclusion begins with the C-flat in the soprano, in measure forty-one. The Elaboration lasts sixty-two measures.

The "Sonate Pathetique" begins with a slow introduction, lasting ten measures of very slow time. Then enters the headlong allegro, of which the Princ.i.p.al, with its retinue of modulating sequences, lasts forty measures. The Second enters in measure forty-one, and the Conclusion in measure seventy-nine. The Elaboration lasts sixty-two measures, beginning with a few measures of the introduction.

Time will not be wasted if before playing each of these movements the subjects themselves be played through separately.

CHAPTER V.