The Greater Republic Part 17

(1757-1804).]

Hamilton's plan was to fund the entire debt and issue new certificates.

It was vehemently opposed, especially the provision that the State debts should be a.s.sumed by the general government; but solely by his wonderful ability he carried the measure through Congress. The debate sharpened the lines between the Federalists and Anti-Federalists or Republicans.

It will be remembered that at that time neither North Carolina nor Rhode Island had adopted the Const.i.tution. The former called a convention, and, on the 13th of November, 1789, ratified it, but Rhode Island continued to sulk until Providence and Newport withdrew from the State, and Ma.s.sachusetts and Connecticut made ready to parcel the State between them. This frightened her, and, on May 29, 1790, she joined her sisters.

The following year Hamilton gave another proof of his power by carrying through Congress, in the face of the strongest opposition, a measure for the relief of the financial straits of the government. The only banks in the country were one each in Philadelphia, New York, and Boston, all of which were State inst.i.tutions. He advocated the establishment of a bank in which the government should be one-fifth owner of the capital stock of $10,000,000 and a preferred borrower to the same amount. It was to be under private management. In the face of the strong opposition, the act creating it was pa.s.sed, and it was chartered for twenty years. The subscriptions required that one-fourth should be paid in specie and the rest in six per cent. certificates of the bank. Within two hours after the subscription books were opened the entire amount of stock was subscribed. The United States Bank was destined to play an important part in national affairs in after years.

Pa.s.sAGE OF A TARIFF BILL.

Having provided the means for funding the debt and for borrowing money, it yet remained to find some way of earning the money. The method was so apparent that Congress lost no time in pa.s.sing a tariff bill. A law placed a duty on imported and domestic spirits, and, in February, 1792, a protective tariff bill was enacted. This provided that the materials from which goods are manufactured should not be taxed, while articles competing with those made in this country were prohibited. A mint was also established in Philadelphia for coining money.

THE FEDERAL JUDICIARY ORGANIZED.

The plan for the Federal judiciary was perfected on the lines proposed by Ellsworth, of Connecticut. The national judiciary consisted of a supreme court, having a chief justice and five a.s.sociate justices, who were to hold two sessions annually at the seat of the Federal government. Specified jurisdiction was given to the circuit and district courts, and each State was made a district; the Territories of Maine and Kentucky were provided for in the same manner, and the remaining Territories were grouped into three circuits. When the matter in dispute amounted to $2,000, an appeal could be taken from the lower courts to the supreme court. The President was to appoint a marshal in each district, possessing the general powers of a sheriff, and the interests of the government were placed in the hands of a district attorney.

The first chief justice of the United States was John Jay, of New York, while Edmund Randolph, of Virginia, was made attorney-general. The a.s.sociate judges were John Rutledge, of South Carolina; James Wilson, of Pennsylvania; William Cushing, of Ma.s.sachusetts; Robert H. Harrison, of Maryland; and John Blair, of Virginia.

Vermont was admitted to the Union on March 4, 1791; Kentucky, June 1, 1792; and Tennessee exactly two years later. These three States were all that were formed during the presidency of Washington.

[Ill.u.s.tration: BEN FRANKLIN MOULDING CANDLES IN HIS FATHER'S SHOP.]

Benjamin Franklin died in Philadelphia, April 17, 1790, at the age of eighty-four years. Since he was one of the greatest of all Americans, he is ent.i.tled to fitting notice. He was born in Boston in 1706, and was the youngest of seventeen children. His father was a tallow chandler and soap boiler, a trade which Benjamin detested. He was apprenticed to his brother, who was a printer, and while a boy gave evidence of his remarkable keenness and brilliant common sense. Rebelling against the discipline of his brother, he ran away, tramping most of the distance to Philadelphia. There he secured a situation and showed himself so skillful and tasteful a printer that he never lacked for work. He established a paper in Philadelphia in 1729, and began the publication of _Poor Richard's Almanac_ in 1732, the year in which Washington was born. The wit, homely philosophy, and keen penetration shown by Franklin attracted wide attention and gave the almanac an enormous circulation, which lasted as long as it was published. Many of his proverbs are still popular and widely quoted.

In 1753, he was appointed deputy postmaster of the British colonies, and, as a delegate to the Albany Convention in 1754, proposed an important plan for colonial union. From 1757 to 1762, and again from 1764 to the Revolution, he was agent of Pennsylvania in England; part of the time also for Ma.s.sachusetts, New Jersey, and Georgia. Returning to Philadelphia in 1775, he was at once chosen a delegate to the Continental Congress. Few persons, in looking at his handsome signature on the Declaration of Independence, would suspect that it was written when he was seventy years old. It has been shown that he was one of the committee of five who drew up the Declaration, and in the following autumn was sent to Paris to join Arthur Lee and Silas Deane. His services there were of the highest importance. He had a leading part in the negotiations of the treaty of peace in 1783, after which he negotiated a favorable treaty with Russia. He returned to America in 1785, and was chosen president of Pennsylvania, and again in 1786 and 1787. He was an influential member of the Const.i.tutional convention, and probably was second to Washington in popularity. His funeral in Philadelphia was attended by more than 20,000 persons.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FRANKLIN'S GRAVE.]

Franklin's researches in electricity, though slight as compared with the discoveries since made by Edison, Tesla, and others, extended his fame to Europe. By means of the kite which he sent aloft in a thunderstorm, he proved that the lightning in the atmosphere is identical with that developed by frictional electricity. This discovery led to the invention of the lightning-rod for buildings, which has been the means of saving property beyond estimate. He was the inventor also of an economical stove and other useful contrivances. He made himself wealthy, and the fortune which he left at his death was the foundation of the splendid inst.i.tution of learning known as the University of Pennsylvania.

[Ill.u.s.tration: THE BATTLE OF FALLEN TIMBERS

In this memorable battle of August 20, 1794, General Wayne visited a final defeat upon the Indians at Maumee Rapids, putting an end to the war in the Northwest, which for nearly four years had terrorized and devastated the territory now occupied by the States of Indiana, Ohio and Illinois.]

DISASTROUS EXPEDITION AGAINST THE WESTERN INDIANS.

Returning to the history of Washington's presidency, mention must be made of the troubles with the western Indians, who, as has been stated, fought relentlessly against the advance of civilization into their hunting grounds. Between 1783 and 1790, 1,500 persons were killed by the red men near the Ohio. It being clear that peace could not be secured except by a thorough chastis.e.m.e.nt of the Indians, Congress gave General Arthur St. Clair, governor of the Northwest Territory, authority to call for 500 militia from Pennsylvania and a thousand from Kentucky, to which were added 400 regulars. Under General Harmar they marched against the Indian villages.

In the campaign the Indians outgeneraled Harmar, who, after inflicting some damage, was defeated and lost 200 men in killed and wounded. The defeat encouraged the savages, who became more aggressive than ever.

General St. Clair organized a second expedition consisting of 2,000 men, including cavalry and artillery, with which in October, 1793, he entered the Indian country, only to suffer a more disastrous defeat than General Harmar, and in which the losses were so dreadful that the news caused consternation in Philadelphia. Washington had cautioned St. Clair against the very mistakes he made, and he completely lost his temper. He paced up and down his room, giving such expressions to his feelings that those around him were awed into silence. By-and-by, he seemed to regret the outburst, and, when the trembling St. Clair some time later presented himself, the President received him without reproach; but St.

Clair was overwhelmed by his disgrace and resigned his command.

WAYNE'S VICTORY OVER THE INDIANS.

Washington determined that no more blunders should be made, and appointed Anthony Wayne to the command of the next expedition. He raised a large force, moved cautiously, and took every precaution against surprise, as Washington had told him to do. He had 4,000 men under his command, and the consummate woodcraft and tricks of the red men failed to deceive him. At Fallen Timbers, near the present city of Toledo, he met a large force, August 20, 1794, of Canadians and Indians, completely routed them, killed a great many, with slight loss to himself, and so crushed the confederation of tribes that they gave no more trouble for a long time. A year later, 1,100 chiefs and warriors met the United States commissioners at Fort Greenville and signed a treaty of peace, by which they ceded to the government an immense tract of land lying in the present States of Michigan and Indiana. An impetus was given to western emigration, which suffered no interruption for many years.

THE WHISKEY INSURRECTION IN PENNSYLVANIA.

One of the acts of Congress was to declare that Philadelphia was to be the national capital for ten years, from 1790, when it was to be removed to a point on the Potomac River, where the city of Washington now stands. One measure which Hamilton induced Congress to pa.s.s caused trouble. It doubled the duty on imported spirits and taxed those distilled in this country. So much dissatisfaction appeared in North Carolina and Pennsylvania that the law was modified, but it did not end the discontent. The officers sent to Pennsylvania to collect the taxes were resisted and the militia sympathized with the rioters, whose numbers swelled to 7,000 under arms. When they began to talk of appealing to England, Washington lost patience and sent a large body of Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey militia to the section.

They were under the command of General Henry Lee, governor of Virginia, and arrived on the scene in October, 1794. Order was soon restored, and the ringleaders, expressing sorrow for their acts, were not punished.

This seems to be the rule in our country, except that repentance on the part of criminals is not required.

"CITIZEN GENET."

The action of "Citizen Genet" caused a flurry during Washington's presidency. The "Reign of Terror" had begun in France, where the most appalling revolution in history had taken place. The tyranny of the rulers had driven the people to frenzied desperation, and, overthrowing the government, their ma.s.sacres were not checked until literally hundreds of thousands of people were killed. Since their rebellion was begun against tyranny, and France had helped us in our war for independence, there was general sympathy for the people in our own country, though everyone was shocked by the deeds that soon horrified the civilized world.

Having established a government, the revolutionists sent Edward Charles Genet to this country as its representative. He was warmly welcomed at Charleston, where he landed in April, 1793. He was too discourteous to go to Philadelphia to present his credentials, and began enlisting recruits for France and intriguing for an alliance with us. Since France was fighting England, Austria, Prussia, Sardinia, and Holland, it can be understood how desirable such an alliance would have been to her.

Washington was too wise to be misled, and he issued a proclamation of neutrality, forbidding citizens of the United States to equip vessels to carry on hostilities against the belligerent powers. Genet paid no attention to this, but kept on enlisting men and fitting out cruisers in American waters. His course became so intolerable that Washington demanded his recall. This demand was complied with, and he was ordered to return home. No one knew better than he that if he showed himself in France he would lose his head. So he stayed in this country until his death in 1834.

JAY'S TREATY.

[Ill.u.s.tration: CHIEF JUSTICE JOHN JAY.]

The course of England became so unjust toward the commerce, because of her war with France, that Chief Justice John Jay, in May, 1794, was sent as envoy extraordinary to that country to demand redress. A treaty was agreed upon and ratified by the Senate in June, 1795, which provided that the British garrisons should be withdrawn from the western posts by June 1, 1796; free inland navigation upon lakes and rivers was guaranteed to both nations, except that the United States was excluded from the territory of the Hudson Bay Company; British vessels were admitted to the rivers and harbors on our seacoast, but our shipping was shut out from the rivers and harbors of the British provinces, with the exception of small vessels trading between Montreal and Quebec; our northeastern boundary was to be fixed by a commission; the payments of debts incurred before the war were guaranteed to British creditors, if such debts were collectible by an American creditor; Great Britain was to pay for losses resulting from irregular captures by her cruisers; citizens of either country were allowed to hold landed possessions in the territory of the other; private property was not to be confiscated in time of war; trade between the United States and the West Indies was free to the vessels of both nations, but American vessels were forbidden to carry West Indian products from the islands or from the States to any other part of the world. The last clause was to be in force only two years, when further negotiation was to take place. In addition, the two years' limit was applicable to the right of American vessels to trade between the East Indies and the United States, but in time of war they were not to take thither any rice or military stores; free commerce was established between the British dominions in Europe and the United States; the regulation of duties was provided for, as well as the appointment of consuls and the rules of blockade; privateering was regulated; what was contraband of war was defined, and it was agreed that piracy should be punished; ships of war could enter the ports of either country; criminals escaping from one country to the other were to be surrendered; and, in the event of war between the two countries, citizens in hostile territory were not to be molested.

Although this treaty possessed many good points, and was the best obtainable by our envoy, it gave so many advantages to Great Britain that it roused bitter enmity in this country. Public meetings were held in the leading cities, where it was denounced as cowardly and made for the express purpose of avoiding a war with England. The feeling rose so high that Jay was burned in effigy, Hamilton was a.s.saulted at a public meeting, the British minister insulted, and even Washington himself treated with disrespect. Better judgment prevailed, when the pa.s.sions cooled, and it is now admitted that Jay's treaty, when all the circ.u.mstances are considered, was a commendable one.

SECOND ELECTION OF WASHINGTON.

It was Washington's wish to retire to private life on conclusion of his first term, but he could not disregard the demand from all quarters. No compet.i.tor appeared in the field against him, and for a second time he was unanimously elected. His vote was 132; that cast for the candidates for the minor office being, John Adams, Federalist, 77; George Clinton, of New York, Republican, 50; Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, Republican, 4; Aaron Burr, of New York, Republican, 1; vacancies, 3. This vote made John Adams again Vice-President.

Since Jefferson was the leader of the Republicans (or as now called the Democrats), and Hamilton of the Federalists (afterward the Whigs), and the two, as members of Washington's cabinet, were able and aggressive, they were continually disputing. Sometimes they sorely tried Washington's patience, who, appreciating the ability of both, often had hard work to prevent an open rupture. On the last day in 1793, Jefferson resigned his office as secretary of foreign affairs and retired to private life at Monticello, Virginia. A year later Hamilton resigned as minister of finance. Through his efforts public credit had been restored, and industry and trade had revived. He well deserved the eloquent tribute of Daniel Webster: "He smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant streams of revenues burst forth. He touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprung upon its feet."

As Washington's second term drew to a close, a universal demand was made that he should serve again. Despite the fact that the two great political parties were fairly organized, and each contained many able men, no one would have had the temerity to offer himself as a compet.i.tor; but he was growing old, his strength had been worn out in the service of his country, and the rest he yearned for could no longer be denied him. He, therefore, issued his immortal Farewell Address to his countrymen and withdrew to Mount Vernon, where he peacefully pa.s.sed away December 14, 1799, mourned by the whole country and revered by the civilized world.

The Farewell Address contains counsel that can never lose its value to America. After thanking his fellow-countrymen for the confidence they had always shown in him, and the support he had received from them, he said that the love of liberty was so interwoven with every ligament of their hearts that no recommendation of his was necessary to fortify that attachment. The unity of government, by which they were made one people, had also become very dear to them.

[Ill.u.s.tration: WASHINGTON'S BEDROOM, MT. VERNON, IN WHICH HE DIED.]

"It is justly so," he said, "for it is a main pillar in the edifice of your real independence--the support of your tranquillity at home, your peace abroad; of your safety, of your prosperity; of that very liberty which you so highly prize. But, as it is easy to foresee that, from different causes and from different quarters, much pains will be taken, many artifices be employed to weaken in your minds the conviction of this truth--as this is the point in your political fortress against which the batteries of internal and external enemies will be most constantly and actively (though often covertly and insidiously) directed--it is of infinite moment that you should properly estimate the immense value of your national union to your collective and individual happiness; that you should cherish a cordial, habitual, and immovable attachment to it; accustoming yourselves to think and speak of it as the palladium of your political safety and prosperity; watching for its preservation with jealous anxiety; discountenancing whatever may suggest even a suspicion that it can in any event be abandoned, and indignantly frowning upon the first dawning of every attempt to alienate any portion of our country from the rest, or to enfeeble the sacred ties which now link together the various parts. For this you have every inducement of sympathy and interest. Citizens, by birth or choice, of a common country, that country has a right to concentrate your affections. The name of AMERICAN, which belongs to you in your national capacity, must also exalt the just pride of patriotism more than any appellation derived from local discriminations. With slight shades of difference, you have the same religion, manners, habits, and political principles.

You have in a common cause fought and triumphed together; the independence and liberty you possess are the work of joint counsels and joints efforts; of common dangers, sufferings, and successes."

[Ill.u.s.tration: THE MOTHER OF WASHINGTON RECEIVING MARQUIS LAFAYETTE.

Previous to his departure for Europe, in the fall of 1784, the Marquis de Lafayette repaired to Fredericksburg to pay his parting respects to Washington's mother and to ask her blessing.

Conducted by one of her grandsons he approached the house, when, the young gentleman observing, "There, sir, is my grandmother," the Marquis beheld, working in her garden, clad in domestic-made clothes and her gray head covered by a plain straw hat, the mother of "his hero, his friend, and a country's preserver." The lady saluted him kindly, observing, "Ah, Marquis, you see an old woman; but come, I can make you welcome to my poor dwelling without the parade of changing my dress."]

Washington next pointed out the mutual advantages derived from one another in the different sections of the Union, and impressively warned his countrymen against the danger of sectional parties and the baneful effects of party spirit. He commended the Const.i.tution, which could be amended, whenever the necessity arose, as beneficent in its provisions and obligatory upon all. Other wholesome counsel, which he added, made the Farewell Address a priceless heritage to the generations that came after him.