The Economic Aspect of Geology Part 12

The sulphur output of the United States, which in 1913-14 was second to Italy, now amounts to three-fourths of the entire output of the world, and the United States has become a large exporter of sulphur. Supplies are ample and production increasing, with the result that the United States can not only meet its own demands, but can use this commodity extensively in world trade. Small amounts of sulphur are mined in some of the western states, but over 98 per cent of the production comes from Louisiana and Texas.

GEOLOGIC FEATURES

Native sulphur is found princ.i.p.ally in sedimentary beds, where it is a.s.sociated with gypsum and usually with organic matter. Deposits of this type are known in many places, the most important being those of Sicily and of the Gulf Coast in the United States. In the latter region beds of limestone carry lenses of sulphur and gypsum which are apparently localized in dome-like upbowings of the strata. The deposits are overlain by several hundred feet of loose, water-bearing sands, through which it is difficult to sink a shaft. An ingenious and efficient process of mining is used whereby superheated water is pumped down to melt the sulphur, which is then forced to the surface by compressed air and allowed to consolidate in large bins. The Sicilian deposits are similar lenses in clayey limestones containing 20 to 25 per cent of sulphur, a.s.sociated with gypsum and bituminous marl; they are mined by shafts.

Concerning the origin of these deposits several theories have been advanced. It has been thought that the materials for the deposits were precipitated at the same time as the enclosing sediments; and that the sulphur may have been formed by the oxidation of hydrogen sulphide in the precipitating waters through the agency of air or of sulphur-secreting bacteria, or that it may have been produced by the reduction of gypsum by organic matter or bacteria. Others have suggested that hot waters rising from igneous rocks may have brought in both the sulphur and the gypsum, which in crystallizing caused the upbowing of the strata which is seen in the Gulf fields (see also p. 298).

Native sulphur is also found in mineral springs from which hydrogen sulphide issues, where it is produced by the oxidation of the hydrogen sulphide. It likewise occurs in fissures of lava and around volcanic vents, where it has probably been formed by reactions between the volcanic gases and the air. The j.a.panese and Chilean deposits are of the volcanic type.

POTASH

ECONOMIC FEATURES

Potash is used princ.i.p.ally as a component of fertilizers in agriculture.

It is also used in the manufacture of soap, certain kinds of gla.s.s, matches, certain explosives, and chemical reagents.

For a long time potash production was essentially a German monopoly. The princ.i.p.al deposits are in the vicinity of Sta.s.sfurt in north central Germany (about the Harz Mountains). Sta.s.sfurt salts are undoubtedly ample to supply the world's needs of potash for an indefinite future.

However, other deposits, discovered in the Rhine Valley in Alsace in 1904, have been proved to be of great extent; and though the production has. .h.i.therto been limited by restrictions imposed by the German Government, it has nevertheless become considerable.[15] The grade (18 per cent K_{2}O) is superior to the general run of material taken from the main German deposits, and the deposits have a regularity of structure and uniformity of material favorable to cheaper mining and refining than obtains in the Sta.s.sfurt deposits.

Other countries have also developed supplies of potash, some of which will probably continue to produce even in compet.i.tion with the deposits of recognized importance referred to above. Noteworthy among the newer developments are those in Spain.[16] These have not yet produced on any large scale, but their future production may be considerable. Less important deposits are known in Galicia, Tunis, Russia, and eastern Abyssinia, and the nitrate deposits of Chile contain a small percentage of potash which is being recovered in some of the operations.

Prior to the war the United States obtained its potash from Germany. The German potash industry was well organized and protected by the German Government, which made every effort to maintain a world monopoly. During the war the potash exports from Germany were cut off, excepting exports to the neutrals immediately adjoining German territory. The result in the United States was that the price of potash rose so far as to greatly diminish its use as fertilizer.

The consequent efforts to increase potash production in the United States met with considerable success, but the maximum production attained was only about one-fourth of the ordinary pre-war requirements.

The princ.i.p.al American sources are alkaline beds and brines in Nebraska, Utah, and California, and especially at Searles Lake, California. These furnished 75 per cent of the total output. Minor amounts have been extracted in Utah from the mineral alunite (a sulphate of pota.s.sium and aluminum), in Wyoming from leucite (a pota.s.sium-aluminum silicate), in California from kelp or seaweed, and in various localities from cement-mill and blast-furnace dusts, from wood ashes, from wool washings, from the waste residues of distilleries and beet-sugar refineries, and from miscellaneous industrial wastes. At the close of the war, sufficient progress had been made in the potash industry to indicate that the United States might become self-supporting in the future, though at high cost. The renewal of importation of cheap potash from Germany, with probable further offerings from Alsace and Spain, makes it impossible for the United States potash production to continue; except, perhaps, for the recovery of by-products which will go on in connection with other industries. Demand for a protective tariff has been the inevitable result (see Chapters XVII and XVIII).

GEOLOGIC FEATURES

Pota.s.sium is one of the eight most abundant elements in the earth. It occurs as a primary const.i.tuent of most igneous rocks, some of which carry percentages as high as those in commercial potash salts used for fertilizers. It is present in some sediments and likewise occurs in many schists and gneisses. Various pota.s.sium silicates--leucite, feldspar, sericite, and glauconite--and the pota.s.sium sulphate, alunite, have received attention and certain of them have been utilized to a small extent, but none of them are normally able to compete on the market.

Potential supplies are thus practically unlimited in amount and distribution. Deposits from which the potash can be extracted at a reasonable cost, however, are known in only a few places, where they have been formed as saline sediments.

In the decomposition of rocks the potash, like the soda, is readily soluble, but in large part it is absorbed and held by clayey materials and is not carried off. Potash is therefore more sparingly present in river and ocean waters than is soda, and deposits of potash salts are much rarer than those of rock salt and other sodium compounds. The large deposits in the Permian beds of Sta.s.sfurt, as well as those in the Tertiary of Alsace and Spain, have been formed by the evaporation of very large quant.i.ties of salt water, presumably sea water. They consist of pota.s.sium salts, princ.i.p.ally the chloride, mixed and intercrystallized with chlorides and sulphates of magnesium, sodium, and calcium. In the Sta.s.sfurt deposits the pota.s.sium-magnesium salts occupy a relatively thin horizon at the top of about 500 feet of rock salt beds, the whole underlying an area about 200 miles long and 140 miles wide. The princ.i.p.al minerals in the potash horizon are carnallite (hydrous pota.s.sium-magnesium chloride), kieserite (hydrous magnesium sulphate), sylvite (pota.s.sium chloride), kainite (a hydrous double salt of pota.s.sium chloride and magnesium sulphate), and common salt (sodium chloride). The potash beds represent the last stage in the evaporation of the waters of a great closed basin, and the peculiar climatic and topographic conditions which caused their formation have been the subject of much speculation. This subject is further treated in the discussion of common salt beds (pp. 295-298).

In the United States the deposits at Searles Lake, California, have been produced by the same processes on a smaller scale. In this case evaporation has not been carried to completion, but the crystallization and separation out of other salts has concentrated the pota.s.sium (with the magnesium) in the residual brine or "mother liquor." The deposits of this lake or marsh also contain borax (see p. 276), and differ in proportions of salts from the Sta.s.sfurt deposits. This is due to the fact that they were probably derived, not from ocean waters, but from the leaching of materials from the rocks of surrounding uplands, transportation of these materials in solution by rivers and ground waters, and concentration in the desert basin by evaporation.

The alkali lakes of Nebraska are believed to be of very recent geologic origin. They lie in depressions in a former sand dune area, and contain large quant.i.ties of potash supposedly acc.u.mulated by leaching of the ashes resulting from repeated burnings of the gra.s.s in the adjacent country.

Of other natural mineral sources, alunite is the most important. The princ.i.p.al deposits worked are at Marysville, Utah, but the mineral is a rather common one in the western part of the United States, a.s.sociated with gold deposits, as at Goldfield, Nevada. Alunite occurs as veins and replacement deposits, often in igneous a.s.sociations, and is supposed to be of igneous source. Its origin is referred to in connection with the Goldfield ores (p. 230).

FOOTNOTES:

[15] Gale, Hoyt S., The potash deposits of Alsace: _Bull. 715-B, U. S.

Geol. Survey_, 1920, pp. 17-55.

[16] Gale, Hoyt S., Potash deposits in Spain: _Bull. 715-A, U. S. Geol.

Survey_, 1920, pp. 1-16.

CHAPTER VIII

THE ENERGY RESOURCES--COAL, OIL, GAS (AND ASPHALT)

COAL

ECONOMIC FEATURES

Coal overshadows all other mineral resources, except water, in production, value, and demand. It is the greatest of the energy sources--coal, petroleum, gas, and water power. Roughly two-thirds of the world's coal is used for power, one-sixth for smelting and metallurgical industries, and one-sixth for heating purposes. Coal const.i.tutes over one-third of the railroad tonnage of the United States and is the largest single tonnage factor in international trade; 70 per cent of the pre-war tonnage of outgoing cargoes from England was coal.

=World production and trade.= The great coal-producing countries of the world border the North Atlantic basin. The United States produces about 40 per cent of the world's total, Great Britain about 20 per cent, and Germany about 20 per cent. Other countries producing coal stand in about the following order: Austria-Hungary, France, Russia, Belgium, j.a.pan, China, India, Canada, and New South Wales. There is similarity in the major features of the distribution of coal production and of iron ore production. The great centers of coal production--the Pennsylvania and Illinois fields of the United States, the Midlands district of England, and the lower Rhine or Westphalian fields of Germany--are also the great centers of the iron and steel industries of these countries. As in the case of iron ore, there is rather a striking absence of important coal production in the southern hemisphere and in Asia. A significant item in the world's distribution of coal supplies is England's world-wide system of coaling stations for shipping.

The princ.i.p.al coal-producing countries all have large reserves of coal.

Outside of these countries the world's most important reserves are in China, which may be looked to for great future development. For the most part, except for the probable Chinese development, it is likely that countries now producing most of the coal will continue to do so in the future, and that outlying parts of the world will continue to be supplied mainly from these countries.

The quant.i.ty and distribution of the coal reserves of the world have been estimated with perhaps a greater degree of accuracy than those of any other mineral resource. From these estimates it appears that the North American continent contains about half of the world reserves (princ.i.p.ally in the United States, with lesser amounts in Canada) and Asia about one-fourth (princ.i.p.ally in China, with some in India). Europe contains only one-sixth of the world total, chiefly in the area of the former German Empire and in Great Britain, with smaller quant.i.ties in Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, and Belgium. Australasia (New South Wales), Africa (British South Africa), and South America (Chile, Brazil, Peru, and Colombia), together contain less than a tenth of the total reserves. Coal being one of the great bases for modern industrialism, the large reserves of high grade-coals in China have led to the belief that China may some day develop into a great manufacturing nation.

Similarly, the deficiency in coal of most of the South American and African countries seems to preclude their developing any very large manufacturing industries, except where water power is available. Coal reserves and the conservation of coal are further discussed in Chapter XVII.

The war resulted in considerable disturbances in coal production and distribution. There has not yet been a return to normal conditions, and some of the changes are probably permanent. The great overseas movement of coal from Germany was stopped and that from England curtailed. To some extent the deficiency was supplied by coal exports from the United States, particularly to South America. The shutting off of the normal German export to France and Mediterranean countries, the occupation of the French and Belgian coal fields by the Germans, and the partial restriction of German exports to Scandinavian countries, resulted in Europe's absorbing most of the British coal available for export, and in addition requiring coal from the United States. The stress in the world's coal industry to meet the energy requirements of war is too recent and vivid to require more than mention. The world was made to realize almost for the first time the utterly vital and essential nature of this industry.

Since the war, there has been a gradual resumption of England's export of coal along old lines of international trade. The German overseas export trade has not been reestablished, and cannot be for a long time to come if Germany fulfills the terms of the Peace Treaty. Indeed, because of slow recovery in output of German coal, there is yet considerable lag in the supply available for European countries. The terms of the Peace Treaty lessened the territory of German coal reserves and required considerable additional contributions of coal to be delivered to France, Belgium, Luxemburg, and Italy.

The increased export of coal from the United States during the war is likely to be in part continued in the future, although the great bulk of the United States production will in the future, as in the past, be absorbed locally. Most of the coal in the United States available for export is higher in volatile matter than the British and German export coal. This quality will in some degree be a limiting factor in exportation. On the other hand, it may result in wider introduction of briquetting, c.o.king, and other processes, which will tend to improve the local industry and be conservational in their effect.

j.a.pan will doubtless hold some of the Asiatic coal market gained during the war.

International coal relations are further discussed in Chapter XVIII.[17]

=Production in the United States.= The main features of the distribution of coal supplies in the United States are:

(1) Localization of the anthracite production and reserves in a limited area in the Lawton region of Pennsylvania. Low-grade anthracite coal also occurs in Rhode Island, North Carolina, Colorado, and Idaho.

(2) Localization of the bituminous production in the eastern and interior states of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Kentucky. The princ.i.p.al reserves of bituminous coal occur in the same provinces, but important additional reserves are known in Texas, in North and South Carolina, and in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast provinces.

(3) The existence of large tonnages of subbituminous coal in the west, which have not been mined to any extent.

(4) The existence of large fields of lignite in the Gulf Coast region, and in the Northern Plains region, which have not been mined.

=c.o.ke.= About one-sixth of the bituminous coal mined in the United States is made into _c.o.ke_, that is, it is subjected to heat in ovens from which oxygen is excluded in order to drive off the volatile gases (chiefly hydrocarbons and water) which const.i.tute about 40 per cent of the weight of the coal. The residual product, the c.o.ke, is a light, porous ma.s.s with a considerably higher percentage of fixed carbon than bituminous coal. In regard to composition, c.o.king accomplishes artificially somewhat the same result reached by nature in its slow development of high-grade coals, but the texture of c.o.ke is far different from that of coal. Not all bituminous coals are suitable for c.o.ke manufacture; and such coals are frequently divided into two cla.s.ses, known as _c.o.king_ and _non-c.o.king_ coals. c.o.ke is used princ.i.p.ally for smelting purposes. Because of its spongy, porous texture, it burns more rapidly and intensely than coal.

The gases eliminated in c.o.king are wasted in the old-fashioned "beehive"

ovens, but in modern "by-product" c.o.ke ovens these gases by proper treatment yield valuable coal tar products and ammonia. It is estimated that the sum of the value of the products thus recovered from a ton of coal multiplies the value of the ton of coal at the mine by at least thirteen times. The importance of this fact from the conservational standpoint cannot be too much emphasized. At present over half of the total c.o.ke produced in the United States comes from by-product ovens, and this proportion will doubtless increase in the future.