The Aeroplane Speaks Part 9

STABILITY is a condition whereby an object disturbed has a natural tendency to return to its first and normal position. Example: a weight suspended by a cord.

INSTABILITY is a condition whereby an object disturbed has a natural tendency to move as far as possible away from its first position, with no tendency to return. Example: a stick balanced vertically upon your finger.

NEUTRAL INSTABILITY is a condition whereby an object disturbed has no tendency to move farther than displaced by the force of the disturbance, and no tendency to return to its first position.

In order that an aeroplane may be reasonably controllable, it is necessary for it to possess some degree of stability longitudinally, laterally, and directionally.

LONGITUDINAL STABILITY in an aeroplane is its stability about an axis transverse to the direction of normal horizontal flight, and without which it would pitch and toss.

LATERAL STABILITY is its stability about its longitudinal axis, and without which it would roll sideways.

DIRECTIONAL STABILITY is its stability about its vertical axis, and without which it would have no tendency to keep its course.

For such directional stability to exist there must be, in effect,[16]

more "keel-surface" behind the vertical axis than there is in front of it. By keel-surface I mean everything to be seen when looking at an aeroplane from the side of it--the sides of the body, undercarriage, struts, wires, etc. The same thing applies to a weatherc.o.c.k. You know what would happen if there was insufficient keel-surface behind the vertical axis upon which it is pivoted. It would turn off its proper course, which is opposite to the direction of the wind. It is very much the same in the case of an aeroplane.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

The above ill.u.s.tration represents an aeroplane (directionally stable) flying along the course B. A gust striking it as indicated acts upon the greater proportion of keel-surface behind the turning axis and throws it into the new course. It does not, however, travel along the new course, owing to its momentum in the direction B. It travels, as long as such momentum lasts, in a direction which is the resultant of the two forces Thrust and Momentum. But the centre line of the aeroplane is pointing in the direction of the new course. Therefore its att.i.tude, relative to the direction of motion, is more or less sideways, and it consequently receives an air pressure in the direction C. Such pressure, acting upon the keel-surface, presses the tail back towards its first position in which the aeroplane is upon its course B.

What I have described is continually going on during flight, but in a well-designed aeroplane such stabilizing movements are, most of the time, so slight as to be imperceptible to the pilot.

If an aeroplane was not stabilized in this way, it would not only be continually trying to leave its course, but it would also possess a dangerous tendency to "nose away" from the direction of the side gusts.

In such case the gust shown in the above ill.u.s.tration would turn the aeroplane round the opposite way a very considerable distance; and the right wing, being on the outside of the turn, would travel with greater velocity than the left wing. Increased velocity means increased lift; and so, the right wing lifting, the aeroplane would turn over sideways very quickly.

LONGITUDINAL STABILITY.--Flat surfaces are longitudinally stable owing to the fact that with decreasing angles of incidence the centre line of pressure (C.P.) moves forward.

The C.P. is a line taken across the surface, transverse to the direction of motion, and about which all the air forces may be said to balance, or through which they may be said to act.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

Imagine A to be a flat surface, att.i.tude vertical, travelling through the air in the direction of motion M. Its C.P. is then obviously along the exact centre line of the surface as ill.u.s.trated. In B, C, and D the surfaces are shown with angles of incidence decreasing to nothing, and you will note that the C.P. moves forward with the decreasing angle.[17]

Now, should some gust or eddy tend to make the surface decrease the angle, _i.e._, dive, then the C.P. moves forward and pushes the front of the surface up. Should the surface tend to a.s.sume too large an angle, then the reverse happens--the C.P. moves back and pushes the rear of the surface up. Flat surfaces are, then, theoretically stable longitudinally. They are not, however, used, on account of their poor lift-drift ratio.

As already explained, cambered surfaces are used, and these are longitudinally unstable at those angles of incidence producing a reasonable lift-drift ratio, _i.e._, at angles below about 12.

A is a cambered surface, att.i.tude approximately vertical, moving through the air in the direction M. Obviously the C.P. coincides with the transverse centre line of the surface.

With decreasing angles, down to angles of about 30, the C.P. moves forward as in the case of flat surfaces (see B); but angles above 30 do not interest us, since they produce a very low ratio of lift to drift.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

Below angles of about 30 (see C) the dipping front part of the surface a.s.sumes a negative angle of incidence resulting in the _downward_ air pressure D, and the more the angle of incidence is decreased, the greater such negative angle and its resultant pressure D. Since the C.P. is the resultant of all the air forces, its position is naturally affected by D, which causes it to move backwards. Now, should some gust or eddy tend to make the surface decrease its angle of incidence, _i.e._, dive, then the C.P. moves backwards, and, pushing up the rear of the surface, causes it to dive the more. Should the surface tend to a.s.sume too large an angle, then the reverse happens; the pressure D decreases, with the result that C.P. moves forward and pushes up the front of the surface, thus increasing the angle still further, the final result being a "tail-slide."

It is therefore necessary to find a means of stabilizing the naturally unstable cambered surface. This is usually secured by means of a stabilizing surface fixed some distance in the rear of the main surface, and it is a necessary condition that the neutral lift lines of the two surfaces, when projected to meet each other, make a dihedral angle. In other words, the rear stabilizing surface must have a lesser angle of incidence than the main surface--certainly not more than one-third of that of the main surface. This is known as the longitudinal dihedral.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

I may add that the tail-plane is sometimes mounted upon the aeroplane at the same angle as the main surface, but, in such cases, it attacks air which has received a downward deflection from the main surface, thus:

[Ill.u.s.tration]

The angle at which the tail surface attacks the air (the angle of incidence) is therefore less than the angle of incidence of the main surface.

I will now, by means of the following ill.u.s.tration, try to explain how the longitudinal dihedral secures stability:

[Ill.u.s.tration]

First, imagine the aeroplane travelling in the direction of motion, which coincides with the direction of thrust T. The weight is, of course, balanced about a C.P., the resultant of the C.P. of the main surface and the C.P. of the stabilizing surface. For the sake of ill.u.s.tration, the stabilizing surface has been given an angle of incidence, and therefore has a lift and C.P. In practice the stabilizer is often set at no angle of incidence. In such case the proposition remains the same, but it is, perhaps, a little easier to ill.u.s.trate it as above.

Now, we will suppose that a gust or eddy throws the machine into the lower position. It no longer travels in the direction of T, since the momentum in the old direction pulls it off that course. M is now the resultant of the Thrust and the Momentum, and you will note that this results in a decrease in the angle our old friend the neutral lift line makes with M, _i.e._, a decrease in the angle of incidence and therefore a decrease in lift.

We will suppose that this decrease is 2. Such decrease applies to both main surface and stabilizer, since both are fixed rigidly to the aeroplane.

The main surface, which had 12 angle, has now only 10, _i.e._, a loss of _one-sixth_.

The stabilizer, which had 4 angle, has now only 2, _i.e._, a loss of _one-half_.

The latter has therefore lost a greater _proportion_ of its angle of incidence, and consequently its lift, than has the main surface. It must then fall relative to the main surface. The tail falling, the aeroplane then a.s.sumes its first position, though at a slightly less alt.i.tude.

Should a gust throw the nose of the aeroplane up, then the reverse happens. Both main surface and stabilizer increase their angles of incidence in the same amount, but the angle, and therefore the lift, of the stabilizer increases in greater proportion than does the angle and lift of the main surface, with the result that it lifts the tail. The aeroplane then a.s.sumes its first position, though at a slightly greater alt.i.tude.

Do not fall into the widespread error that the angle of incidence varies as the angle of the aeroplane to the horizontal. It varies with such angle, but not as anything approaching it. Remember that the stabilizing effect of the longitudinal dihedral lasts only as long as there is momentum in the direction of the first course.

These stabilizing movements are taking place all the time, even though imperceptible to the pilot.

Aeroplanes have, in the past, been built with a stabilizing surface in front of the main surface instead of at the rear of it. In such design the main surface (which is then the tail surface as well as the princ.i.p.al lifting surface) must be set at a less angle than the forward stabilizing surface, in order to secure a longitudinal dihedral. The defect of such design lies in the fact that the main surface must have a certain angle to lift the weight--say 5. Then, in order to secure a sufficiency of longitudinal stability, it is necessary to set the forward stabilizer at about 15. Such a large angle of incidence results in a very poor lift-drift ratio (and consequently great loss of efficiency), except at very low velocities compared with the speed of modern aeroplanes. At the time such aeroplanes were built velocities were comparatively low, and this defect was, for that reason, not sufficiently appreciated. In the end it killed the "canard" or "tail-first" design.

Aeroplanes of the Dunne and similar types possess no stabilizing surface distinct from the main surface, but they have a longitudinal dihedral which renders them stable.

The main surface towards the wing-tips is given a decreasing angle of incidence and corresponding camber. The wing-tips then act as longitudinal stabilizers.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

This design of aeroplane, while very interesting, has not proved very practicable, owing to the following disadvantages: (1) The plan design is not, from a mechanical point of view, so sound as that of the ordinary aeroplane surface, which is, in plan, a parallelogram. It is, then, necessary to make the strength of construction greater than would otherwise be the case. That means extra weight. (2) The plan of the surface area is such that the aspect ratio is not so high as if the surface was arranged with its leading edges at right angles to the direction of motion. The lower the aspect ratio, then, the less the lift. This design, then, produces less lift for weight of surface than would the same surface if arranged as a parallelogram. (3) In order to secure the longitudinal dihedral, the angle of incidence has to be very much decreased towards the wing-tips. Then, in order that the lift-drift ratio may be preserved, there must be a corresponding decrease in the camber. That calls for surface ribs of varying cambers, and results in an expensive and lengthy job for the builder. (4) In order to secure directional stability, the surface is, in the centre, arranged to dip down in the form of a V, pointing towards the direction of motion.

Should the aeroplane turn off its course, then its momentum in the direction of its first course causes it to move in a direction the resultant of the thrust and the momentum. It then moves in a more or less sideways att.i.tude, which results in an air pressure upon one side of the V, and which tends to turn the aeroplane back to its first course. This arrangement of the surface results in a bad drift. Vertical surfaces at the wing-tips may also be set at an angle producing the same stabilizing effect, but they also increase the drift.

The gyroscopic action of a rotary engine will affect the longitudinal stability when an aeroplane is turned to right or left. In the case of a Gnome engine, fitted to a "pusher" aeroplane, such gyroscopic action will tend to depress the nose of the aeroplane when it is turned to the left, and to elevate it when it is turned to the right. When fitted to a "tractor" aeroplane, the engine is reversed so that a reverse condition results. In modern aeroplanes this tendency is not sufficiently important to bother about, except in the matter of spiral descents (see section headed "Spinning"). In the old days of crudely designed and under-powered "pusher" aeroplanes this gyroscopic action was very marked, and led the majority of pilots to dislike turning an aeroplane to the right, since, in doing so, there was some danger of "stalling."

LATERAL STABILITY is far more difficult for the designer to secure than is longitudinal or directional stability. Some degree of lateral stability may be secured by means of the "lateral dihedral," _i.e._, the upward inclination of the surface towards its wing-tips thus:

[Ill.u.s.tration]

Imagine the top =V=, ill.u.s.trated opposite, to be the front view of a surface flying towards you. The horizontal equivalent (H.E.) of the left wing is the same as that of the right wing. Therefore, the lift of one wing is equal to the lift of the other, and the weight, being situated always in the centre, is balanced.

If some movement of the air causes the surface to tilt sideways, as in the lower ill.u.s.tration, then you will note that the H.E. of the left wing increases, and the H.E. of the right wing decreases. The left wing then, having the greatest lift, rises; and the surface a.s.sumes its first and normal position.

Unfortunately, however, the righting effect is not proportional to the difference between the right and left H.E.'s.