Sex and Society Part 12

[Footnote 10: Ibid., pp. 84-90.]

[Footnote 11: Geddes and Thompson, _loc. cit._, Book I, chap. 4.]

[Footnote 12: Rolph, quoted by Geddes and Thompson, _loc. cit._, Book I, chap. 4.]

[Footnote 13: Geddes and Thompson, _ibid._]

[Footnote 14: G. Klebs, _Ueber das Verhaltniss des mannlichen und weiblichen Geschlechts in der Natur_, p. 19.]

[Footnote 15: Food affords the basis for metabolic changes in the parent organism, but it is probable that food is less _directly_ related than heat and light to the determination of s.e.x. Sachs, whose experiments must be given the greatest possible weight, has determined that the ultra-violet rays of light are necessary to the chemical changes essential to the formation of the reproductive organs.

(J. Sachs, "Ueber die Wirkung der ultravioletten Strahlen auf die Bluthenbildung," _Gesammelte Abhandlungen uber Pflanzen-Physiologie_, Vol. I, pp. 293ff.) More recently, Klebs has shown that by diminishing the intensity of light the development of female s.e.x organs in ferns can be interrupted, so that, in spite of the presence of male organs, fertilization is impossible; at the same time, the prothallia are enabled in weak light to grow feebly and to put out small as.e.xual processes, which in the presence of bright light become normal prothallia. Similarly, the development of s.e.xual organs in algae is dependent on a certain intensity of light, and the plant remains sterile if the light is diminished below a certain point. (G. Klebs, _Ueber einige Probleme der Physiologie der Fortpflanzung_, pp.

13-16.)]

[Footnote 16: E. Maupas, "Theorie de la s.e.xualite des Infusoires cilies," _Comptes rendus_, Vol. CV, pp. 356ff.]

[Footnote 17: The extinction took place at about the 330th generation in _Onychodromus grandis_, at about the 320th generation in _Stylonichia mytilis_, at about the 330th generation in _Leucophrys patula_, and at about the 660th generation in _Oxytricha_ (indeterminate). (Maupas, _loc. cit._, p. 358.)]

[Footnote 18: Maupas, _loc. cit._, p. 358. Later investigations have tended to discredit Maupas' experiments as a whole by showing that the Infusorians with which he experimented can be kept alive indefinitely by a change of diet, without the aid of s.e.xual conjugation. This merely confirms the view, however, that abundant nutrition and crossing are alike favorable to health: "We must admire the skill of the investigator who was able to keep his colonies alive for months and years under such artificial conditions, but we may venture to doubt whether the fate of extinction which did ultimately overtake them was really due to the absence of conjugation, and not to the unnaturalness of the conditions." A. Weismann, _The Evolution of Theory_, Vol. I, p. 329.

Since the above was written, Calkins has made a series of new experiments, the results of which differed in several respects from those yielded by Maupas' experiments. When his infusorian cultures began to grow weaker, as happened frequently and at irregular intervals, he was always able to restore them to more vigorous life by a change of diet, and especially by subst.i.tuting grated meat, liver, and the like for infusions of hay. Certain salts too, had the same effect; the animals became perfectly vigorous again. Calkins believes that chemical agents, and especially salts, must be supplied to the protoplasm from time to time. He reared 620 generations of _Paramoecium_ without conjugation. But the 620th was weakly and without energy. The addition of an extract of sheep's brains made them perfectly fresh and vigorous again. Further experiments in this direction are to be desired, but, according to those of Calkins, it is probable that Infusorians can continue to live for an unlimited time even without conjugation. (Ibid., note.)]

[Footnote 19: Westermarck, _loc. cit._, pp. 476-83, following a suggestion of Dusing, has brought together much of the evidence on this point, but the application of the facts here made has not, I believe, been suggested.]

[Footnote 20: A. von Oettingen, _Die Moralstatistik_, 3. Aufl., p.

56.]

[Footnote 21: Dusing, _Die Regulirung des Geschlechtsverhaltnisses_, p. 237.]

[Footnote 22: Westermarck, _loc. cit._, pp. 479 and 481 n.]

[Footnote 23: Cf. _ibid._, pp. 476-83.]

[Footnote 24: G. Delaunay, "De l'egalite et inegalite des deux s.e.xes,"

_Revue scientifique_, September 3, 1881; C. Darwin, _Descent of Man_, chap. 10.]

[Footnote 25: A. Weismann, _Essays on Heredity_, Vol. I, "The Duration of Life," has shown that size and longevity are determined by natural selection.]

[Footnote 26: Darwin, _Descent of Man_, chap. 8.]

[Footnote 27: Ibid.]

[Footnote 28: A.R. Wallace, _Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection_, chap. 3.]

[Footnote 29: "If we take the highly decorated species--that is, animals marked by alternate dark or light bands or spots, such as the zebra, some deer, or the carnivora--we find, first, that the region of the spinal column is marked by a dark stripe; secondly, that the regions of the appendages, or limbs, are differently marked; thirdly, that the flanks are striped or spotted along or between the regions of the lines of the ribs; fourthly, that the shoulder and hip regions are marked by curved lines; fifthly, that the pattern changes, and the direction of the lines or spots, at the head, neck, and every joint of the limbs; and, lastly, that the tips of the ears, nose, tail, and the feet and the eye are emphasized in color. In spotted animals the greatest length of the spot is generally in the direction of the largest development of the skeleton."--A. Tylor, _Coloration in Animals and Plants_, p. 92.]

[Footnote 30: A.R. Wallace, _Darwinism_, chap. 10.]

[Footnote 31: Professor Carl Pearson, in a severe, not to say unmannerly, paper ("Variation in Man and Woman," _The Chances of Death_, Vol. I), has criticized some of the results of the physical anthropologists and attempted to show that the theory of the greater variability of man has no legs to stand on. His argument is mainly statistical, and affects, perhaps, some of the details of the theory, but not, I think, the theory as a whole.]

[Footnote 32: Darwin, _loc. cit._, chap. 19.]

[Footnote 33: P. Topinard, _elements d'anthropologie generale_, p.

253.]

[Footnote 34: Delaunay, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 35: Weisbach, "Der deutsche Weiberschadel," _Archiv fur Anthropologie_, Vol. III, p. 66.]

[Footnote 36: Topinard, _loc. cit._, p. 375.]

[Footnote 37: Topinard, _loc. cit._, p. 1066.]

[Footnote 38: Topinard's figures (_loc. cit._, p. 1066) show, however, that the Eskimos and the Tasmanians have a shorter trunk than the Europeans.]

[Footnote 39: J. Ranke, "Beitrage zur physischen Anthropologie der Bayern," _Beitrage zur Anthropologie und Urgeschichte Bayerns_, Vol.

VIII, p. 65.]

[Footnote 40: Morphological differences are less in low than in high races, and the less civilized the race, the less is the physical difference of the s.e.xes. In the higher races the men are both more unlike one another than in the lower races, and at the same time more unlike the women of their own race. But, while some of these differences may probably be justly set down as congenital, as representing varieties of the species which have pa.s.sed through different variational experiences, they are doubtless mainly due to the fact that the activities of men and women are more unlike in the higher than in the lower races.]

[Footnote 41: J.W. Seaver, _Anthropometric Table_, 1889.]

[Footnote 42: Delphine Hanna, _Anthropometric Table_ 1891.]

[Footnote 43: Where a large body of men are intensely interested in a compet.i.tion, as over against a small body of women not seriously interested, any comparison of results is almost out of the question.

But the superior physical strength of man is, I believe, disputed in no quarter. The Va.s.sar records have been improved in succeeding years (the 100-yard dash was 13 seconds in 1904, the running high jump 4 feet 2 inches in 1905, the running broad jump 14 feet 6 inches in 1904), but Miss Harriet Isabel Ballantine, director of the Va.s.sar College Gymnasium, writes me: "I do not believe women can ever, no matter what the training, approach man in their physical achievements; and I see no reason why they should."]

[Footnote 44: Helen B. Thompson, _The Mental Traits of s.e.x_, p. 178.

"While it is improbable that _all_ the difference of the s.e.xes with regard to physical strength can be attributed to persistent difference in training, it is certain that a large part of the difference is explicable on this ground. The great strength of savage women and the rapid increase in strength of civilized women wherever systematic physical training has been introduced both show the importance of this factor."--Ibid., p. 178.]

[Footnote 45: "Physical and Mental Deviations from the Normal among Children in Public Elementary and Other Schools," _Report of the Sixty-fourth Meeting of the British a.s.sociation for the Advancement of Science_, 1894. pp. 434ff.]

[Footnote 46: A. Mitch.e.l.l, "Some Statistics of Idiocy," _Edinburgh Medical Journal_, Vol. XI, p. 639.]

[Footnote 47: "Koch's Statistics of Insanity," _Journal of Mental Science_, Vol. XXVI, p. 435.]

[Footnote 48: Mayr, _Die Verbreitung der Blindheit, der Taubstummheit, des Blodsinns und des Irrsinns in Baiern_, p. 100.]

[Footnote 49: Cf. Campbell, _loc. cit._, pp. 146ff.]

[Footnote 50: Ibid., pp. 132-40.]

[Footnote 51: J.H. Manley, "Harelip," _International Medical Journal_, Vol. II, pp. 209ff.]

[Footnote 52: _Communications of the Ma.s.sachusetts Medical Society_, Vol. II, No. 3, p. 9.]

[Footnote 53: Of the 3,956 individuals examined, 1,645 were males, and of these 47 (2.857 per cent.) presented supernumerary nipples. Of the 3,956 individuals 2,311 were females, and of these 14 (0.605 per cent.) presented supernumerary mammae or nipples. That is, this anomaly was found to occur more than four times as frequently in men as in women.--J. Mitch.e.l.l Bruce, "On Supernumerary Nipples and Mammae," _Journal of Anatomy and Physiology_, Vol. XIII, p. 432.

Leichtenstern, however, whose investigations were of earlier date than those of Bruce, says that supernumerary mammae occur with about equal frequency in the two s.e.xes.--Leichtenstern, "Ueber das Vorkommen und die Bedeutung supernumerarer Bruste und Brustwarzen," Virchow's _Archiv fur pathologische Anatomie_, Vol. LXXIII, p. 238.]