School Choice or Best Systems Part 6

51 Belfield and Levin, p. 54. Belfield and Levin, p. 54.

52 Ibid. Ibid.

Chapter 4.

1 See Herbert J. Walberg and Joseph L. Bast, See Herbert J. Walberg and Joseph L. Bast, Capitalism and Education Capitalism and Education (Stanford, CA: Hoover Inst.i.tution Press, 2003), pp. 54-60. (Stanford, CA: Hoover Inst.i.tution Press, 2003), pp. 54-60.

2 James A. Johnson, Harold W. Collins, Victor L. Dupuis, and John H. Johansen, James A. Johnson, Harold W. Collins, Victor L. Dupuis, and John H. Johansen, Introduction to the Foundations of American Education Introduction to the Foundations of American Education, 6th ed. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1985).

3 John T. Wenders, "The Extent and Nature of Waste and Rent Dissatisfaction in U.S. Public Schools" John T. Wenders, "The Extent and Nature of Waste and Rent Dissatisfaction in U.S. Public Schools" Cato Journal Cato Journal 25 (2005): 222. 25 (2005): 222.

4 James S. Coleman, "Public Schools, Private Schools, and the Public Interest," James S. Coleman, "Public Schools, Private Schools, and the Public Interest," Public Interest Public Interest 64 (Summer 1981). 64 (Summer 1981).

5 Martha Naomi Alt and Katherine Peter, "Private Schools: A Brief Portrait," in Martha Naomi Alt and Katherine Peter, "Private Schools: A Brief Portrait," in The Condition of Education 2002 The Condition of Education 2002 (Washington: U.S. Department of Education, 2002). (Washington: U.S. Department of Education, 2002).

6 "Enrollments of Private High School Students in Elite Colleges and Universities," "Enrollments of Private High School Students in Elite Colleges and Universities," Wall Street Journal Wall Street Journal, September 15, 2006, p. W10.

7 Henry Braun, Frank Jenkins, and Wendy Grigg, "Comparing Private Schools and Public Schools Using Hierarchical Linear Models," U.S. Department of Education Inst.i.tute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, NCES 2006- 461, 2006. Henry Braun, Frank Jenkins, and Wendy Grigg, "Comparing Private Schools and Public Schools Using Hierarchical Linear Models," U.S. Department of Education Inst.i.tute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, NCES 2006- 461, 2006.

8 Paul E. Peterson and Elena Llaudet, "On the Public-Private School Achievement Debate," paper presented at the meetings of the American Political Science a.s.sociation, Philadelphia, August 2006. Paul E. Peterson and Elena Llaudet, "On the Public-Private School Achievement Debate," paper presented at the meetings of the American Political Science a.s.sociation, Philadelphia, August 2006.

9 John E. Chubb and Terry Moe, John E. Chubb and Terry Moe, Politics, Markets, and America's Schools Politics, Markets, and America's Schools (Washington: Brookings Inst.i.tution, 1990). (Washington: Brookings Inst.i.tution, 1990).

10 Paul E. Peterson, "Thorough and Efficient Private and Public Schools" in Paul E. Peterson, "Thorough and Efficient Private and Public Schools" in Courting Failure, Courting Failure, ed. Erik A. Ha.n.u.shek (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Education Next Press, 2006), p. 221. ed. Erik A. Ha.n.u.shek (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Education Next Press, 2006), p. 221.

11 James Coleman and Thomas Hoffer, James Coleman and Thomas Hoffer, Public and Private High Schools: The Impact of Communities Public and Private High Schools: The Impact of Communities (New York: Basic Books, 1987). (New York: Basic Books, 1987).

12 Anthony Bryk, Valerie Lee, and Paul Holland, Anthony Bryk, Valerie Lee, and Paul Holland, Catholic Schools and the Common Good Catholic Schools and the Common Good (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993). (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).

13 Derek Neal, "The Effects of Catholic Secondary Schooling on Educational Achievement," Derek Neal, "The Effects of Catholic Secondary Schooling on Educational Achievement," Journal of Labor Economics Journal of Labor Economics 15, no. 1 (1997): 100. 15, no. 1 (1997): 100.

14 Patrick J. McEwan, "Comparing the Effectiveness of Public and Private Schools," Teachers College, Columbia University, National Center for the Study of Privatization in Education, Occasional Paper no. 3, 2000. Patrick J. McEwan, "Comparing the Effectiveness of Public and Private Schools," Teachers College, Columbia University, National Center for the Study of Privatization in Education, Occasional Paper no. 3, 2000.

15 Eric R. Eide, Dan D. Goldhaber, and Mark H. Showalter, "Does Catholic High School Attendance Lead to Attendance at a More Selective College?" Eric R. Eide, Dan D. Goldhaber, and Mark H. Showalter, "Does Catholic High School Attendance Lead to Attendance at a More Selective College?" Social Science Quarterly Social Science Quarterly 85, no. 5 (2005): 1335-52. 85, no. 5 (2005): 1335-52.

16 Thomas Sowell, "Patterns of Black Excellence," Thomas Sowell, "Patterns of Black Excellence," Public Interest Public Interest, Spring 1976, pp. 26-58.

17 Thomas Sowell, "Black Excellence: The Case of Dunbar High School," Thomas Sowell, "Black Excellence: The Case of Dunbar High School," Public Interest Public Interest 35 (Spring 1974): 1-21. 35 (Spring 1974): 1-21.

18 Chubb and Moe, p. 182. Chubb and Moe, p. 182.

19 Valerie Lee, "Catholic Lessons for Public Schools," in Valerie Lee, "Catholic Lessons for Public Schools," in New Schools for a New Century New Schools for a New Century, ed. Diane Ravitch (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 147-63.

20 Paul E. Peterson and Herbert J. Walberg, "Urban Catholic Schools Excel Academically, Struggle Financially," Paul E. Peterson and Herbert J. Walberg, "Urban Catholic Schools Excel Academically, Struggle Financially," School Reform News School Reform News (Heartland Inst.i.tute), April 2005, (Heartland Inst.i.tute), April 2005, http://www.heartland.org/Article.cfm?artId=16672. For additional details, see William Howell and Paul E. Peterson, The Education Gap: Vouchers and Urban Schools The Education Gap: Vouchers and Urban Schools (Washington: Brookings Inst.i.tution, 2002). (Washington: Brookings Inst.i.tution, 2002).

21 Peterson and Walberg. Peterson and Walberg.

22 Charles C. Wolf, Charles C. Wolf, Markets or Governments: Choosing between Imperfect Alternatives Markets or Governments: Choosing between Imperfect Alternatives (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); and E. S. Savas, (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988); and E. S. Savas, Privatization and Public-Private Partnerships Privatization and Public-Private Partnerships (New York: Chatham House, 2000). (New York: Chatham House, 2000).

23 John Hilke, John Hilke, Cost Savings from Privatization: A Compilation of Study Findings Cost Savings from Privatization: A Compilation of Study Findings (Los Angeles: Reason Foundation, 1993). (Los Angeles: Reason Foundation, 1993).

24 Andrew J. Coulson, "Arizona Public and Private Schools: A Statistical a.n.a.lysis," Goldwater Inst.i.tute, 2006, Andrew J. Coulson, "Arizona Public and Private Schools: A Statistical a.n.a.lysis," Goldwater Inst.i.tute, 2006, http://www.goldwaterinst.i.tute.org/Common/Files/Multimedia/1137.pdf.

25 Wenders. Wenders.

26 David F. Salisbury, "What Does a Voucher Buy? A Closer Look at the Cost of Private Schools," Cato Inst.i.tute Policy a.n.a.lysis no. 486, August 28, 2003, David F. Salisbury, "What Does a Voucher Buy? A Closer Look at the Cost of Private Schools," Cato Inst.i.tute Policy a.n.a.lysis no. 486, August 28, 2003, http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa486.pdf; and National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 2002, Digest of Education Statistics, 2002, Table 61, Table 61, http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2003/2003060b.pdf.

27 David Salisbury, "Saving Money and Improving Education: How School Choice Can Help States Reduce Expenditure Costs," Cato Inst.i.tute Policy a.n.a.lysis no. 551, October 4, 2005. David Salisbury, "Saving Money and Improving Education: How School Choice Can Help States Reduce Expenditure Costs," Cato Inst.i.tute Policy a.n.a.lysis no. 551, October 4, 2005.

28 An issue that clouds such cost comparisons is the possible differences in percentages of special needs and poor students in the public and private schools since public schools are normally eligible for (and receive) extra funds for each such student. A more fundamental issue is the cla.s.sification of special needs students. With the exceptions of fully or partially blind and deaf students, cla.s.sifications of students in need of special programs are highly unreliable, that is, experts lack agreement on which cla.s.sification schemes to use and on which students to place in such categories as normal, learning disabled, mildly mentally handicapped, and behaviorally disordered. Special educators may be motivated to cla.s.sify increasing percentages of students as in need of their services, which brings increased funding and administrative and teaching jobs to public school systems. Further complicating policy is the finding that, on average, special needs students who are "mainstreamed," that is, placed in regular cla.s.ses, do better than those who are segregated into special programs, They may do better since they are not stigmatized and they, their cla.s.smates, and their teachers have higher expectations for their performance. For these reasons, private schools that avoid questionable psychological categorization of students are both more effective and less costly. For findings about and a.n.a.lyses of these issues, see Margaret C. w.a.n.g, Maynard C. Reynolds, and Herbert J. Walberg, eds., An issue that clouds such cost comparisons is the possible differences in percentages of special needs and poor students in the public and private schools since public schools are normally eligible for (and receive) extra funds for each such student. A more fundamental issue is the cla.s.sification of special needs students. With the exceptions of fully or partially blind and deaf students, cla.s.sifications of students in need of special programs are highly unreliable, that is, experts lack agreement on which cla.s.sification schemes to use and on which students to place in such categories as normal, learning disabled, mildly mentally handicapped, and behaviorally disordered. Special educators may be motivated to cla.s.sify increasing percentages of students as in need of their services, which brings increased funding and administrative and teaching jobs to public school systems. Further complicating policy is the finding that, on average, special needs students who are "mainstreamed," that is, placed in regular cla.s.ses, do better than those who are segregated into special programs, They may do better since they are not stigmatized and they, their cla.s.smates, and their teachers have higher expectations for their performance. For these reasons, private schools that avoid questionable psychological categorization of students are both more effective and less costly. For findings about and a.n.a.lyses of these issues, see Margaret C. w.a.n.g, Maynard C. Reynolds, and Herbert J. Walberg, eds., Handbook of Special Education, Handbook of Special Education, 4 vols. (London: Pergamon, 1987-89); and Chester E. Finn Jr., Andrew J. Rotherham, and Charles R. Hokanson Jr., eds., 4 vols. (London: Pergamon, 1987-89); and Chester E. Finn Jr., Andrew J. Rotherham, and Charles R. Hokanson Jr., eds., Rethinking Special Education for a New Century Rethinking Special Education for a New Century (Washington: Progressive Policy Inst.i.tute, 2001). (Washington: Progressive Policy Inst.i.tute, 2001).

29 Salisbury, "Saving Money and Improving Education," p. 9. Salisbury, "Saving Money and Improving Education," p. 9.

30 Ibid., p. 10. Ibid., p. 10.

31 Ibid., p. 12. Ibid., p. 12.

32 David Campbell, "Making Democratic Education Work: Schools, Social Capital and Civic Education," paper presented at the Conference on Charter Schools, Vouchers, and Public Education, Harvard University, March 9-10, 2000. David Campbell, "Making Democratic Education Work: Schools, Social Capital and Civic Education," paper presented at the Conference on Charter Schools, Vouchers, and Public Education, Harvard University, March 9-10, 2000.

33 Daniel A. McFarland and Carlos Starmanns. "Student Government and Political Socialization," unpublished ma.n.u.script, Stanford University, Daniel A. McFarland and Carlos Starmanns. "Student Government and Political Socialization," unpublished ma.n.u.script, Stanford University, http://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2004/sepoct/features/politics.htm.

34 Patrick J. Wolf, Jay P. Greene, Brett Kleitz, and Kristina Thalhammar, "Private Schooling and Political Tolerance: Evidence from College Students in Texas," paper presented at the Conference on Vouchers, Charters, and Public Education, Harvard University, March 2000, p. 20. Patrick J. Wolf, Jay P. Greene, Brett Kleitz, and Kristina Thalhammar, "Private Schooling and Political Tolerance: Evidence from College Students in Texas," paper presented at the Conference on Vouchers, Charters, and Public Education, Harvard University, March 2000, p. 20.

35 David E. Campbell, "Vote Often: Creating Civic Norms," David E. Campbell, "Vote Often: Creating Civic Norms," Education Next Education Next, Summer 2005, p. 69.

36 Jay P. Greene, Joseph Giammo, and Nicole Mellow, "The Effect of Private Education on Political Partic.i.p.ation, Social Capital and Tolerance: An Examination of the Latino National Political Survey," Jay P. Greene, Joseph Giammo, and Nicole Mellow, "The Effect of Private Education on Political Partic.i.p.ation, Social Capital and Tolerance: An Examination of the Latino National Political Survey," Georgetown Public Policy Review Georgetown Public Policy Review 5, no. 1 (Fall 1999), summarized in Jay P. Greene, "A Survey of Results from Voucher Experiments: Where We Are and What We Know," Manhattan Inst.i.tute Civic Report no. 11, July 2000, p. 11, 5, no. 1 (Fall 1999), summarized in Jay P. Greene, "A Survey of Results from Voucher Experiments: Where We Are and What We Know," Manhattan Inst.i.tute Civic Report no. 11, July 2000, p. 11, http://www.manhattan-inst.i.tute.org/html/cr_11.htm.

37 One study suggests that, under a completely free choice system, schools would tend to be segregated-not by social cla.s.s or race but by ability as in the case of American colleges and universities. See Dennis Epple, "Compet.i.tion between Private and Public Schools, Vouchers, and Peer Group Effects," One study suggests that, under a completely free choice system, schools would tend to be segregated-not by social cla.s.s or race but by ability as in the case of American colleges and universities. See Dennis Epple, "Compet.i.tion between Private and Public Schools, Vouchers, and Peer Group Effects," American Economic Review American Economic Review 88 (March 1998): 33-62. 88 (March 1998): 33-62.

38 Helen Ladd and Edward Fiske, Helen Ladd and Edward Fiske, School Choice in New Zealand: A Cautionary Tale School Choice in New Zealand: A Cautionary Tale (Washington: Brookings Inst.i.tution, 2000); Amy Stuart Wells, "Sociology of School Choice: Why Some Win and Others Lose in the Educational Marketplace," in (Washington: Brookings Inst.i.tution, 2000); Amy Stuart Wells, "Sociology of School Choice: Why Some Win and Others Lose in the Educational Marketplace," in School Choice: Examining the Evidence, School Choice: Examining the Evidence, ed. Edith Rasell and R. Rothstein (Washington: Economic Policy Inst.i.tute, 1993); and J. Douglas Williams and Frank H. Echols, "The Scottish Experience of Parental School Choice," in ed. Edith Rasell and R. Rothstein (Washington: Economic Policy Inst.i.tute, 1993); and J. Douglas Williams and Frank H. Echols, "The Scottish Experience of Parental School Choice," in School Choice; School Choice; all cited in Greene, "A Survey of Results from Voucher Experiments." all cited in Greene, "A Survey of Results from Voucher Experiments."

39 Jay P. Greene, "Civic Values in Public and Private Schools," in Jay P. Greene, "Civic Values in Public and Private Schools," in Learning from School Choice Learning from School Choice, ed. Paul E. Peterson and Bryan C. Ha.s.sel (Washington: Brookings Inst.i.tution, 1998), pp. 83-106, cited in Greene, "A Survey of Results from Voucher Experiments," p. 9.

40 Jay P. Greene, "Civic Values in Public and Private Schools," cited in Greene, "A Survey of Results from Voucher Experiments," p. 12. Jay P. Greene, "Civic Values in Public and Private Schools," cited in Greene, "A Survey of Results from Voucher Experiments," p. 12.

41 Greene, "Civic Values in Public and Private Schools," cited in Greene, "A Survey of Results from Voucher Experiments," p. 9. Greene, "Civic Values in Public and Private Schools," cited in Greene, "A Survey of Results from Voucher Experiments," p. 9.

42 Jay P. Greene, "The Racial, Economic, and Religious Context of Parental Choice in Cleveland," paper presented at the a.s.sociation for Public Policy a.n.a.lysis and Management meeting, Washington, November 1999, Jay P. Greene, "The Racial, Economic, and Religious Context of Parental Choice in Cleveland," paper presented at the a.s.sociation for Public Policy a.n.a.lysis and Management meeting, Washington, November 1999, http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/pepg/papers.htm, cited in Greene, "A Survey of Results from Voucher Experiments," p. 10.

43 Andrew J. Coulson, "How Markets Affect Quality: Testing a Theory of Market Education against the International Evidence," in Andrew J. Coulson, "How Markets Affect Quality: Testing a Theory of Market Education against the International Evidence," in Educational Freedom and Urban America Educational Freedom and Urban America, ed. David Salisbury and Casey Lartigue Jr. (Washington: Cato Inst.i.tute, 2004).

44 James Tooley and Pauline Dixon, James Tooley and Pauline Dixon, Private Education Is Good for the Poor: A Study of Private Schools Serving the Poor in Low-Income Countries Private Education Is Good for the Poor: A Study of Private Schools Serving the Poor in Low-Income Countries (Washington: Cato Inst.i.tute, 2006), pp. 2-3. (Washington: Cato Inst.i.tute, 2006), pp. 2-3.

45 Priyanka Anand, Alejandra Mizala, and Andea Repetto, Priyanka Anand, Alejandra Mizala, and Andea Repetto, Using Scholarships to Estimate the Effect of Government Subsidized Private Education on Academic Achievement in Chile Using Scholarships to Estimate the Effect of Government Subsidized Private Education on Academic Achievement in Chile (Washington: American Inst.i.tutes for Research, 2006). (Washington: American Inst.i.tutes for Research, 2006).

Chapter 5.

1 Paul Teske and Mark Schneider, "What Research Can Tell Policymakers about School Choice," Paul Teske and Mark Schneider, "What Research Can Tell Policymakers about School Choice," Journal of Policy a.n.a.lysis and Management Journal of Policy a.n.a.lysis and Management 20 (Fall 2001): 609-31. 20 (Fall 2001): 609-31.

2 Ibid., p. 609. Ibid., p. 609.

3 Ibid., abstract. Ibid., abstract.

4 Ibid., p. 619. Ibid., p. 619.

5 Clive R. Belfield and Henry M. Levin, Clive R. Belfield and Henry M. Levin, The Effects of Compet.i.tion on Educational Outcomes: A Review of U.S. Evidence The Effects of Compet.i.tion on Educational Outcomes: A Review of U.S. Evidence (New York: National Center for the Study of Privatization in Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, September 2001), p. 1, (New York: National Center for the Study of Privatization in Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, September 2001), p. 1, http://www.ncspe.org/keepout/papers/00035/585_OP35.pdf . .

6 Ibid., Table 1, "Summary of the Effects of Increases in Compet.i.tion by One Standard Deviation," p. 47. Ibid., Table 1, "Summary of the Effects of Increases in Compet.i.tion by One Standard Deviation," p. 47.

7 Ludger Woessman, "Why Students in Some Countries Do Better," Ludger Woessman, "Why Students in Some Countries Do Better," Education Next Education Next, no. 2 (2001): 5, http://www.educationnext.org/20012/67.html.

8 Ibid., p. 2. Ibid., p. 2.

9 Ibid., p. 11. Ibid., p. 11.

10 Jay P. Greene, "Education Freedom Index," Manhattan Inst.i.tute Civic Report no. 14, September 2000, Jay P. Greene, "Education Freedom Index," Manhattan Inst.i.tute Civic Report no. 14, September 2000, http://www.manhattan-inst.i.tute.org/html/cr_14.htm.

11 Ibid. Ibid.

12 Andrew J. Coulson, "The Cato Education Market Index" Cato Inst.i.tute Policy a.n.a.lysis no. 585, December 13, 2006, p. 20. Andrew J. Coulson, "The Cato Education Market Index" Cato Inst.i.tute Policy a.n.a.lysis no. 585, December 13, 2006, p. 20.

13 Charles Tiebout, "A Pure Theory of Local Public Expenditures," Charles Tiebout, "A Pure Theory of Local Public Expenditures," Journal of Political Economy Journal of Political Economy 64 (1956): 416-24. 64 (1956): 416-24.

14 For a recent review of Tiebout compet.i.tion among jurisdictions and schools, see William Fischel, "The Courts and Public School Finance: Judge-Made Centralization and Economic Research" in For a recent review of Tiebout compet.i.tion among jurisdictions and schools, see William Fischel, "The Courts and Public School Finance: Judge-Made Centralization and Economic Research" in Handbook on the Economics of Education, Handbook on the Economics of Education, ed. Eric Ha.n.u.shek and Finis Welch (London: Elsevier, forthcoming). ed. Eric Ha.n.u.shek and Finis Welch (London: Elsevier, forthcoming).

15 Herbert J. Walberg and Herbert J. Walberg III, "Losing Local Control," Herbert J. Walberg and Herbert J. Walberg III, "Losing Local Control," Educational Researcher, Educational Researcher, June-July 1993, pp.19-26. See also Herbert J. Walberg, "Losing Local Control of Education: Cost and Quality Implications," Heartland Inst.i.tute Policy Brief no. 59, November 22, 1993, June-July 1993, pp.19-26. See also Herbert J. Walberg, "Losing Local Control of Education: Cost and Quality Implications," Heartland Inst.i.tute Policy Brief no. 59, November 22, 1993, http://www.heartland.org/pdf//21764i.pdf.

16 Melvin V. Borland and Roy M. Howsen, "On the Determination of the Critical Level of Market Concentration in Education," Melvin V. Borland and Roy M. Howsen, "On the Determination of the Critical Level of Market Concentration in Education," Economics of Education Review Economics of Education Review 12, no. 2 (1993): abstract. 12, no. 2 (1993): abstract.

17 Albert O. Hirschman used this index earlier, and subsequently it is termed the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index. Albert O. Hirschman used this index earlier, and subsequently it is termed the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index.

18 Lisa Barrow and Cecilia Elena Rouse, "Using Market Valuation to a.s.sess the Importance and Efficiency of Public School Spending," paper presented at Annual Meeting of the American Educational Finance a.s.sociation, in Econometric Society, Econometric Society World Congress 2000 Contributed Papers series, no. 1446, 2000, Lisa Barrow and Cecilia Elena Rouse, "Using Market Valuation to a.s.sess the Importance and Efficiency of Public School Spending," paper presented at Annual Meeting of the American Educational Finance a.s.sociation, in Econometric Society, Econometric Society World Congress 2000 Contributed Papers series, no. 1446, 2000, http://ideas.repec.org/s/ecm/wc2000.html.

19 Clive R. Belfield and Henry M. Levin, Clive R. Belfield and Henry M. Levin, The Effects of Compet.i.tion on Educational Outcomes: A Review of U.S. Evidence The Effects of Compet.i.tion on Educational Outcomes: A Review of U.S. Evidence (New York: National Center for the Study of Privatization in Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, March 2002). (New York: National Center for the Study of Privatization in Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, March 2002).

20 Caroline M. Hoxby, "How School Choice Affects the Achievement of Public School Students," in Caroline M. Hoxby, "How School Choice Affects the Achievement of Public School Students," in Choice with Equity, Choice with Equity, ed. Paul T. Hill (Stanford, CA: Hoover Inst.i.tution Press, 2002), pp. 141-78. ed. Paul T. Hill (Stanford, CA: Hoover Inst.i.tution Press, 2002), pp. 141-78.

21 Ibid., Table 8, "Effect of Traditional Inter-District Choice on Public School Students' Achievement," p. 173. Ibid., Table 8, "Effect of Traditional Inter-District Choice on Public School Students' Achievement," p. 173.

22 Jay P. Greene and Marcus A. Winters, "The Effect of Residential School Choice on Public High School Graduation Rates," Manhattan Inst.i.tute Education Working Paper no. 9, April 2005. Jay P. Greene and Marcus A. Winters, "The Effect of Residential School Choice on Public High School Graduation Rates," Manhattan Inst.i.tute Education Working Paper no. 9, April 2005.

23 David Tyack, David Tyack, The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974); and David Tyack and Larry Cuban, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974); and David Tyack and Larry Cuban, Tinkering toward Utopia: A Century of Public School Reform Tinkering toward Utopia: A Century of Public School Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995). (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995).

24 National Center for Education Statistics, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics Tables and Digest of Education Statistics Tables and Figures 2003, Figures 2003, Table 85, "Number of Public School Districts and Public and Private Elementary Schools: Selected Years, 1869-70 to 2001-02," Table 85, "Number of Public School Districts and Public and Private Elementary Schools: Selected Years, 1869-70 to 2001-02," http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/tables/dt085.asp.

25 Greene and Winters, conclusion. Greene and Winters, conclusion.

26 Montana ranks about exactly average in education spending per student, adjusted for regional cost differences (2002) at $7,772 per pupil compared with the $7,734 U.S. average. "Quality Counts 2005: No Small Change-Targeting Money toward Student Performance," Montana ranks about exactly average in education spending per student, adjusted for regional cost differences (2002) at $7,772 per pupil compared with the $7,734 U.S. average. "Quality Counts 2005: No Small Change-Targeting Money toward Student Performance," Education Week Education Week 24, no. 17 (January 8, 2005): 102. 24, no. 17 (January 8, 2005): 102.

27 See student achievement rankings in National a.s.sessment of Educational Progress, See student achievement rankings in National a.s.sessment of Educational Progress, The Nation's Report Card The Nation's Report Card (Washington: National Center for Education Statistics, 2006); and state profile for Montana at (Washington: National Center for Education Statistics, 2006); and state profile for Montana at http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/states/profile.asp . .

28 National Center for Education Statistics, Table 93, "Public Elementary and Secondary Schools and Enrollment, by Type and Size of School: 2001-02," National Center for Education Statistics, Table 93, "Public Elementary and Secondary Schools and Enrollment, by Type and Size of School: 2001-02," http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/tables/dt093.asp. The average number of students per school in 2001-02 was 520. Other statistics come from David Strang, "The Administrative Transformation of American Education: School District Consolidation, 1938-1980," Administrative Science Quarterly Administrative Science Quarterly (1987): 352-66, cited in Walberg and Walberg. (1987): 352-66, cited in Walberg and Walberg.

29 Walberg and Walberg, pp. 19-26. Walberg and Walberg, pp. 19-26.

30 Ibid., p. 5. Ibid., p. 5.

31 Terry M. Moe, "A Union by Any Other Name," Terry M. Moe, "A Union by Any Other Name," Education Next, Education Next, Fall 2001, Fall 2001, http://www.educationnext.org/20013/38moe.html.

32 Belfield and Levin. Belfield and Levin.

33 National Center for Education Statistics, Table 86, "Number of Public School Districts and Enrollment, by Size of District: Selected Years, 1989-90 to 2001-02," National Center for Education Statistics, Table 86, "Number of Public School Districts and Enrollment, by Size of District: Selected Years, 1989-90 to 2001-02," http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/tables/dt086.asp.

34 Elaine Allensworth, "Graduation and Dropout Trends in Chicago: A Look at Cohorts of Students from 1991 to 2004," Chicago Consortium for School Research, 2005, Elaine Allensworth, "Graduation and Dropout Trends in Chicago: A Look at Cohorts of Students from 1991 to 2004," Chicago Consortium for School Research, 2005, http://ccsr.uchicago.edu/content/publications.php?pub_id=61&list=t.

35 National a.s.sessment of Educational Progress, National a.s.sessment of Educational Progress, The Nation's Report Card. The Nation's Report Card.

36 William D. Eggers, Lisa Snell, Robert Wavra, and Adrian T. Moore, "Driving More Money into the Cla.s.sroom: The Promise of Shared Services," Reason Foundation and Deloitte Research LLC, October 2005, William D. Eggers, Lisa Snell, Robert Wavra, and Adrian T. Moore, "Driving More Money into the Cla.s.sroom: The Promise of Shared Services," Reason Foundation and Deloitte Research LLC, October 2005, http://www.reason.org/ps339.pdf.

37 Ibid. Ibid.

38 See John Yinger, Howard S. Bloom, Axel Borch-Supan, and Helen F. Ladd, See John Yinger, Howard S. Bloom, Axel Borch-Supan, and Helen F. Ladd, Property Taxes and Housing Values Property Taxes and Housing Values (Boston, MA: Academic Press, 1988). (Boston, MA: Academic Press, 1988).

39 Caroline Minter Hoxby, "Local Property Tax-Based Funding of Public Schools," Heartland Inst.i.tute, May 19, 1997, pp. 1-2. See also idem, "Does Compet.i.tion among Public Schools Benefit Students and Taxpayers? Evidence from Natural Variation in School Districting," National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper no. 4979, 1994; and Melvin Borland and Roy Howsen, "Student Academic Achievement and the Degree of Market Concentration in Education," Caroline Minter Hoxby, "Local Property Tax-Based Funding of Public Schools," Heartland Inst.i.tute, May 19, 1997, pp. 1-2. See also idem, "Does Compet.i.tion among Public Schools Benefit Students and Taxpayers? Evidence from Natural Variation in School Districting," National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper no. 4979, 1994; and Melvin Borland and Roy Howsen, "Student Academic Achievement and the Degree of Market Concentration in Education," Economics of Education Review Economics of Education Review 389 (1992): 31-39. 389 (1992): 31-39.

Chapter 6.

1 James W. Skillen, ed., James W. Skillen, ed., The School Choice Controversy: What Is Const.i.tutional? The School Choice Controversy: What Is Const.i.tutional? (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1993); and Virgil C. Blum, (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1993); and Virgil C. Blum, Freedom of Choice in Education Freedom of Choice in Education (New York: Macmillan, 1958). (New York: Macmillan, 1958).

2 Steven Arons, Steven Arons, Short Route to Chaos Short Route to Chaos (Amherst: University of Ma.s.sachusetts Press, 1997); R. McCarthy, D. Oppewal, W. Peterson, and G. Spykman, (Amherst: University of Ma.s.sachusetts Press, 1997); R. McCarthy, D. Oppewal, W. Peterson, and G. Spykman, Society, State and Schools: A Case for Structural and Confessional Pluralism Society, State and Schools: A Case for Structural and Confessional Pluralism (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1981); and D. D. McGarry and L. Ward, eds., (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1981); and D. D. McGarry and L. Ward, eds., Educational Freedom and the Case for Government Aid to Students in Independent Schools Educational Freedom and the Case for Government Aid to Students in Independent Schools (Milwaukee, WI: Bruce, 1966). (Milwaukee, WI: Bruce, 1966).