Retribution_ The Battle For Japan, 1944-45 Part 21

A BRIEF CHRONOLOGY OF THE j.a.pANESE WAR.

193118September: j.a.pan begins occupation of Manchuria 193325March: j.a.pan leaves League of Nations 193421October: In China, Mao Zedong begins "Long March" to Shensi Province 193625November: j.a.pan signs Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany 19377July: "Marco Polo bridge incident" sparks j.a.panese invasion of China 13December: j.a.panese seizure of Nanjing precipitates ma.s.sacre of Chinese 1939MayAugust: Soviet and j.a.panese forces clash at Nomonhan on the Manchuria-Mongolia border: j.a.pan decisively worsted 23August: n.a.z.i-Soviet Pact signed1September: Germany invades Poland3September: France, Britain, India, Australia and New Zealand declare war on Germany 1940January: U.S. abrogates 1911 Treaty of Commerce with j.a.pan 22June: France signs armistice with Germany; j.a.pan insists on closure of HaiphongYunnan rail link through French Indochina, supplying Chiang Kai-shek. Eight hundred French troops killed resisting j.a.panese forces advancing into Indochina.26June: U.S.A. imposes embargo on iron and steel sc.r.a.p shipments to j.a.pan16September: U.S. Selective Service Act becomes law, imposing the draft27September: j.a.pan signs Tripart.i.te Pact with Germany and Italy5November: Roosevelt wins third presidential term 194110January: Siam invades French Indochina 31January: Siam and French Indochina accept j.a.panese "mediation" j.a.pan occupies northern Indochina22June: Hitler invades the Soviet Union26July: U.S. imposes oil embargo on j.a.pan and freezes j.a.panese a.s.sets27July: j.a.panese occupy Saigon and enter Cambodia18October: General Tojo replaces Prince Konoe as j.a.panese prime minister7December: j.a.panese aircraft bomb U.S. Pacific bases at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii; Wake Island; Midway; Philippines8December: j.a.panese invade Malaya and Siam, Bangkok government surrenders8December: The United States declares war on j.a.pan. j.a.pan enters into a state of war with the United States and Britain.9December: Nationalist China declares war on j.a.pan, Germany and Italy10December: j.a.panese sink British warships Prince of Wales Prince of Wales and and Repulse Repulse off Malaya, begin landing on Luzon, Philippines off Malaya, begin landing on Luzon, Philippines14December: j.a.panese advance into Burma16December: j.a.panese land in Borneo20December: j.a.panese attack Dutch East Indies22December: j.a.panese land at Lingayen, Philippines24December: j.a.panese seize Wake Island25December: Hong Kong falls 194225January: Siam declares war on Britain and the United States 2February: Maj.-Gen. Joseph Stilwell appointed C-in-C to Chiang Kai-shek and C-in-C U.S. forces in the China theatre3February: j.a.pan invades Dutch East Indies; j.a.panese bombers attack Port Moresby, New Guinea8February: President Quezon, on besieged Corregidor, asks Roosevelt for immediate Philippines independence, so that the islands can declare themselves neutral and call upon both j.a.panese and Americans to leave. FDR refuses.15February: British garrison of Singapore surrenders to the j.a.panese; j.a.panese bomb Darwin, in northern Australia23February: j.a.panese submarine bombards oil refinery at Santa Barbara, California27February: j.a.panese victorious in Battle of the Java Sea8March: New j.a.panese landings on New Guinea11March: MacArthur escapes from the Philippines17March: MacArthur appointed Allied commander in the south-west Pacific6April: j.a.panese forces land on the Admiralty Islands and on Bougainville in the Solomons, and bomb two towns in eastern India9April: U.S. troops on the Bataan Peninsula surrender18April: Sixteen B-25 Mitch.e.l.l bombers, launched from the carrier Hornet Hornet and led by Gen. James Doolittle, bomb Tokyo; captured U.S. aircrew beheaded by the j.a.panese and led by Gen. James Doolittle, bomb Tokyo; captured U.S. aircrew beheaded by the j.a.panese1May: j.a.panese take Mandalay6May: U.S. forces on Corregidor, Philippines, surrender to the j.a.panese7May: Battle of the Coral Sea costs j.a.panese and Americans a carrier sunk and another badly damaged on each side, but forces the j.a.panese for the first time to abandon an amphibious a.s.sault against Port Moresby, New Guinea15May: In China, j.a.panese execute one hundred Chinese families in reprisal for the Doolittle Raid23May: Stilwell reaches India, after 150-mile march out of Burma with Chinese units; British forces complete withdrawal from Burma4June: j.a.panese attack Midway Island, north-east of Hawaii6June: j.a.panese occupy Kiska in the Aleutians; decisive U.S. naval victory at Midway, with four j.a.panese carriers sunk and 275 planes destroyed, for American loss of one carrier and 132 planes7August: Americans land on Guadalca.n.a.l9August: j.a.panese navy sinks four U.S. cruisers off Savo Island, in the Solomons11August: Australians driven out of Deniki on the Kokoda Trail in New Guinea12August: j.a.panese land at Buna, New Guinea27August: U.S. carrier Saratoga Saratoga badly damaged by submarine attack, leaving badly damaged by submarine attack, leaving Wasp Wasp only operational U.S. carrier in the Pacific only operational U.S. carrier in the Pacific1September: Battle of Stalingrad begins2September: In North Africa, Rommel withdraws after the decisive failure of his a.s.sault on the British defending Egypt at Alam Halfa8September: New Guinea: Australian forces driven back in the Owen Stanley Mountains18September: New Guinea: j.a.panese forces obliged to make some withdrawals, Australians poised to start advance on the Kokoda Trail11-12October: Solomons: j.a.panese navy worsted in Battle of Cap Esperance17October: Burma: Indian forces begin an advance in the Arakan23October: U.S. forces land in North Africa; Battle of El Alamein begins26October: j.a.panese navy victorious in Battle of Santa Cruz, which costs U.S. Hornet Hornet fatally damaged and fatally damaged and Enterprise Enterprise crippled, but j.a.panese suffer heavy aircraft losses crippled, but j.a.panese suffer heavy aircraft losses 19432February: Germans capitulate at Stalingrad 13February: First British "Chindit" operation launched into Burma2March: Battle of the Bismarck Sea20June: U.S. campaign in New Georgia begins5July: Battle of Kursk begins1August: j.a.panese declare Burma independent3September: Allies land in Italy7October: Mountbatten becomes Allied supreme commander in South-East Asia14October: j.a.panese declare Philippines independent20November: U.S. Marines land on Tarawa Atoll2December: First chain reaction achieved at Chicago University by the Manhattan Project team 194431January: U.S. forces land in the Marshalls 2March: Second Chindit operation mounted into Burma15March: j.a.panese Imphal-Kohima offensive begins22April: U.S. forces land at Hollandia, New Guinea AprilDecember: j.a.panese "Ichigo" offensive in China17May: Stilwell's Chinese and U.S. force takes Myitkyina airfield31May: j.a.panese begin withdrawal from Kohima4June: Allied forces enter Rome6June: D-Day landings in Normandy15June: U.S. forces land on Saipan19June: Battle of the Philippine Sea begins18July: Tojo resigns as j.a.pan's prime minister; j.a.panese begin retreat from Imphal20July: German officers attempt unsuccessfully to a.s.sa.s.sinate Hitler15September: Marines land on Peleliu20October: U.S. Army lands on Leyte24-25October: Naval Battle of Leyte Gulf30October: Lt.-Gen. Albert Wedemeyer replaces Stilwell as senior U.S. military representative in China6November: Roosevelt wins fourth presidential term December: Slim's Fourteenth Army crosses Chindwin into Burma 19459January: U.S. Army lands on Luzon 11January: British forces begin to cross the Irrawaddy19February: Marines land on Iwo Jima2March: British advance to Meiktila9March: j.a.panese seize control of Indochina20March: British capture Mandalay1April: U.S. Army and Marines land on Okinawa5April: Koiso resigns as j.a.pan's prime minister, succeeded by Suzuki12April: Death of Roosevelt; Truman becomes president30April: Hitler commits suicide3May: Slim's Fourteenth Army enters Rangoon8May: VE-Day in Europe: Germany surrenders unconditionally16July: World's first atomic device tested at Alamogordo17July: Allied summit meeting in Potsdam26July: Churchill resigns as British prime minister following election defeat6August: First atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima8August: USSR declares war on j.a.pan, invades Manchuria9August: Second atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki15August: VJ-Day: j.a.pan announces its surrender26August: Soviet forces declare Hutou fortress secure, completing their campaign in Manchuria2September: j.a.pan's surrender signed in Tokyo Bay

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

A book of this kind, three years in the making, has been dependent upon help and goodwill from a host of people. First, I should thank my publishers in London and New York, Richard Johnson and Ash Green, together with my splendid editor, Robert Lacey of HarperCollins. My British and American agents, Michael Sissons and Peter Matson, are always wonderfully supportive.

It is often suggested that academic historians are prey to jealousies. By contrast, I am constantly amazed by the generosity of scholars. Dr. Williamson Murray and Dr. Allan Millett offered many pointers at the outset of this project. Both were kind enough to read and comment upon a draft of my ma.n.u.script. Without the advice and personal commitment of Dr. Tim Nenninger, it would be impossible for a researcher to make swift headway in the vastnesses of the U.S. National Archive. Tim's help was indispensable in pointing me towards relevant and relatively unexplored material. The U.S. Army's Military History Inst.i.tute at Carlisle, Penn., is a peerless source of doc.u.ments and personal narratives, which its staff identified for me. Special thanks are due to Dr. Richard Sommers, together with Dr. Conrad Crane, MHI's director, himself a notable historian. Con commented upon my chapter about Curtis LeMay's air campaign. Dear Dr. Tami Biddle, of the neighbouring U.S. Army War College, gave me copies of many USAAF doc.u.ments which she had unearthed in the course of her own researches.

The U.S. Marine Corps' historical centre at Quantico, Virginia, is full of good things, and I am grateful especially to Mike Miller for his a.s.sistance during my time there. The U.S. Navy's Historical Center at the Navy Yard in Washington, D.C., is another treasure house. Jack Green answered my questions, in person and by e-mail, with endless patience. Thereafter, he corrected scores of technical solecisms in my text, for which I am especially grateful. The library and oral history archive provided a ma.s.s of published and unpublished material. Dr. Ronald Spector offered some reflections over lunch in Washington. James Controvitch provided a comprehensive formation and unit bibliography. Col. David Glantz read and commented upon the draft of my chapters on the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, about which he is the foremost Western expert. Richard Frank, who in recent years has established himself as a brilliant historian of the Pacific, drew my attention to his unpublished monograph on Leyte Gulf. He also read my ma.n.u.script in advance of its U.S. publication, saving me from some egregious errors. The above, of course, bear no responsibility for my errors or judgements, some of which they will dissent from.

In Britain, Professor Sir Michael Howard, OM, CH, MC, and Don Berry were kind enough to read and discuss this ma.n.u.script, as they did that of my earlier book Armageddon Armageddon. The staff at the Imperial War Museum were as splendid as ever, and the museum's collection of personal memoirs gets better every year. The Liddell Hart Archive at King's College, London, and the London Library both provided indispensable a.s.sistance.

In j.a.pan, Chako Bellamy located survivors of the wartime era for interview, and accompanied me to interpret at meetings with them. Gu Renquan, the enchanting "Maomao," wife of the distinguished former BBC correspondent and biographer of Mao Zedong, Philip Short, did the same for me in China. Her company was among the foremost pleasures of my travels there. In Russia Dr. Luba Vinogradovna, researcher and interpreter for Armageddon Armageddon, translated a ma.s.s of doc.u.ments and personal reminiscences, as well as conducting interviews with several Red Army veterans of the Manchurian campaign. I have acknowledged individual contributions from eyewitnesses in the source notes, but I would like to offer collective thanks to all those in four countries, many of them very elderly, who answered my questions for many hours, thus contributing much to making this book possible.

My secretary, Rachel Lawrence, is never less than wonderful. My wife, Penny, sometimes thinks it might be best to emigrate when I am writing a book. In truth, however, she knows that I could do none of it without her.

NOTES AND SOURCES.

As with Armageddon Armageddon, I have not concluded this book with a formal bibliography, because the published literature is so vast. A catalogue of relevant t.i.tles becomes merely an author's peac.o.c.k display. I have confined myself instead to listing in the source notes works from which I have quoted directly, or cited specific points of information. I have omitted references for quotations which have been familiar for decades in the public domain.

Quotations derived from author interviews are attributed as, for instance, "AI Horsford." Those downloaded from the Veterans' Oral History Archive of the U.S. Library of Congress are attributed as, for instance, "LC Jenkins interview." Princ.i.p.al doc.u.mentary sources are abbreviated as follows: .

British National Archive-BNA Liddell Hart Archive, King's College London-LHA Imperial War Museum, London-IWM U.S. National Archive-USNA U.S. Navy Historical Center-NHC U.S. Army Military History Inst.i.tute, Carlisle-USAMHI U.S. Marine Corps Historical Center, Quantico, Va.-MCHC Australian War Memorial-AWM.

Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders, but where this has proved impossible, I offer apologies.

INTRODUCTION.

1. "There are no big battalions" Lord Tedder, "There are no big battalions" Lord Tedder, Air Power and War Air Power and War, London 1948, p. 41.

2. "I agree wholeheartedly" Richard Frank, "I agree wholeheartedly" Richard Frank, Downfall Downfall, Penguin 2001, p. 359; and Robert Newman, Truman and the Hiroshima Myth Truman and the Hiroshima Myth, University of Michigan Press 1995, pa.s.sim.

CHAPTER ONE * DILEMMAS AND DECISIONS.

3. "which may not be until the final" John Paton Davies, "which may not be until the final" John Paton Davies, Dragon by the Tail Dragon by the Tail, Robson Books 1974, p. 274.

4. "Both [nations'] programmes were fuelled" "Both [nations'] programmes were fuelled" RUSI Journal RUSI Journal, August 2005.

5. "j.a.pan did not invade independent countries" John Dower, "j.a.pan did not invade independent countries" John Dower, War Without Mercy War Without Mercy, Faber 1986, p. 5. Dower's works have become indispensable sources for any writer about wartime j.a.pan.

6. "We honestly believed that America" Col. Tsuji Masan.o.bu, "We honestly believed that America" Col. Tsuji Masan.o.bu, Singapore: The j.a.panese Version Singapore: The j.a.panese Version, Constable 1962, p. 21.

7. "The shame of our disaster" BNA CAB79/79. "The shame of our disaster" BNA CAB79/79.

8. "It is all very well to say" Brendan Bracken BNA CAB66/29 11.6.43. "It is all very well to say" Brendan Bracken BNA CAB66/29 11.6.43.

9. "The j.a.panese have proved" "The j.a.panese have proved" Daily Mail Daily Mail, 21.1.44.

10. "Never do that again" AI Horsford. "Never do that again" AI Horsford.

11. "We are of the opinion" LHA Lethbridge Papers Box 1/3. "We are of the opinion" LHA Lethbridge Papers Box 1/3.

12. "Americans ought to like" NHC Library. "Americans ought to like" NHC Library.

13. "The c.u.mulative cost" Alvin P. Stauffer, "The c.u.mulative cost" Alvin P. Stauffer, The Quartermaster Corps Operations in the War Against j.a.pan The Quartermaster Corps Operations in the War Against j.a.pan, Department of the Army, Washington D.C. 1955.

14. "The people are what" AI DeTour. "The people are what" AI DeTour.

15. "Only shipmates were important" Emory Jernigan, "Only shipmates were important" Emory Jernigan, Tin Can Man Tin Can Man, Vandamere Press 1993, p. 167. Jernigan's memoir offers an outstanding record of lower-deck destroyer service in the Pacific.

16. "Eugene Hardy" LC Hardy interview. "Eugene Hardy" LC Hardy interview.

17. "Men live conscious" Keith Vaughan, "Men live conscious" Keith Vaughan, Journal Journal, 7 March 1944, Alan Ross 1966.

18. "Relax, we have always won" W. J. Holmes, "Relax, we have always won" W. J. Holmes, Double-Edged Secrets Double-Edged Secrets, Naval Inst.i.tute Press 1979, p. 125.

19. "All the officers at home" USAMHI Eichelberger Papers 22.7.44. "All the officers at home" USAMHI Eichelberger Papers 22.7.44.

20. "that terrible, recurrent" Anthony Powell, "that terrible, recurrent" Anthony Powell, The Valley of Bones The Valley of Bones, Heinemann 1964, p. 116.

21. "My dear Myrtle" USNA RG496 Box 457 Entry 74. "My dear Myrtle" USNA RG496 Box 457 Entry 74.

22. "Here it is a Burma moon" IWM 99/77/1, letters of 25.10.44 and 17.5.44. "Here it is a Burma moon" IWM 99/77/1, letters of 25.10.44 and 17.5.44.

23. "Nearly every j.a.p fights" LHA Gracey Papers 6/113. "Nearly every j.a.p fights" LHA Gracey Papers 6/113.

24. "Dear Mother and Dad" MCHC Kennard Papers. "Dear Mother and Dad" MCHC Kennard Papers.

25. "In 1944 there seemed absolutely" AI Luo Dingwen. "In 1944 there seemed absolutely" AI Luo Dingwen.

26. "We got the order to retreat" AI Ying Yunping. "We got the order to retreat" AI Ying Yunping.

27. "They didn't want this baby" AIs Chen Jinyu, Tan Yadong. "They didn't want this baby" AIs Chen Jinyu, Tan Yadong.

28. "In some districts" "In some districts" North China Herald North China Herald, 28.2.40.

29. "Everywhere in Asia" Theodore White and Annalee Jacoby, "Everywhere in Asia" Theodore White and Annalee Jacoby, Thunder Out of China Thunder Out of China, William Sloan, New York 1946, p. xiii.

30. "We understood that" AI Konada. "We understood that" AI Konada.

31. "We realised that j.a.pan" AI Ando. "We realised that j.a.pan" AI Ando.

32. "In j.a.pan, one felt very conscious" AI Funaki. "In j.a.pan, one felt very conscious" AI Funaki.

33. "In October 1944 Lt. Masaichi Kikuchi" AI Kikuchi. "In October 1944 Lt. Masaichi Kikuchi" AI Kikuchi.

34. "I imagined the Americans" Meirion and Susie Harries, "I imagined the Americans" Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun Soldiers of the Sun, Heinemann 1991, p. 314.

35. "We have just started" IWM Thompson Papers 87/58/1, letter of 4.11.44. "We have just started" IWM Thompson Papers 87/58/1, letter of 4.11.44.

36. "If brought out, public opinion" "If brought out, public opinion" Eisenhower Diaries Eisenhower Diaries, ed. Robert Ferrell, Norton 1981, p. 49.

37. "From everything I saw of him" "From everything I saw of him" The Alanbrooke Diaries The Alanbrooke Diaries, ed. Alex Danchev and Daniel Todman, Weidenfeld & Nicolson 2001, p. 476.

38. "joy or sorrow" Charles Lockwood and Hans Adamson, "joy or sorrow" Charles Lockwood and Hans Adamson, Battles of the Philippine Sea Battles of the Philippine Sea, New York 1967, p. 7.

39. "At the risk of being naive" USAMHI Harmon Papers Box 1a/2c, memo from Streett to Handy 31.10.42. "At the risk of being naive" USAMHI Harmon Papers Box 1a/2c, memo from Streett to Handy 31.10.42.

40. "The violence of inter-service rivalry" Air Marshal Sir John Slessor, "The violence of inter-service rivalry" Air Marshal Sir John Slessor, The Central Blue The Central Blue, Ca.s.sell 1956, p. 494.

41. "If it were not for his hatred" USAMHI Eichelberger letters, op. cit. "If it were not for his hatred" USAMHI Eichelberger letters, op. cit.

42. "It is generally believed" "It is generally believed" New York Times New York Times, 13.4.44.

43. "ruthless, vain, unscrupulous" Churchill College, Cambridge: Journal of Lt.-Gen. Gerald Wilkinson. "ruthless, vain, unscrupulous" Churchill College, Cambridge: Journal of Lt.-Gen. Gerald Wilkinson.

44. "The humiliation of forcing me" Quoted Clayton James, "The humiliation of forcing me" Quoted Clayton James, The Years of MacArthur The Years of MacArthur, Houghton Mifflin 1975, Vol. II, p. 527.

45. "Pearl was mostly bra.s.s and hookers" LC Hardy interview. "Pearl was mostly bra.s.s and hookers" LC Hardy interview.

46. "There were dinner parties" MCHC Smith Papers. "There were dinner parties" MCHC Smith Papers.

47. "No matter how a war starts" "No matter how a war starts" U.S. Infantry Journal U.S. Infantry Journal, April 1945.

48. "conceived of war as something" "conceived of war as something" On to Westward On to Westward, New York 1945, p. 234.

49. "warned me that it was well" MCHC Smith Papers. "warned me that it was well" MCHC Smith Papers.

50. "I am a doctor" Cato D. Glover, "I am a doctor" Cato D. Glover, Command Performance with Guts Command Performance with Guts, New York 1969, p. 46.

51. "the one great leader" Admiral J. J. Clark, with G. Clark, "the one great leader" Admiral J. J. Clark, with G. Clark, Carrier Admiral Carrier Admiral, Reynolds McKay, New York 1967, p. 242.

CHAPTER TWO * j.a.pAN: DEFYING GRAVITY.

52. "Even at that stage" AI Kikuchi. "Even at that stage" AI Kikuchi.

53. "I found that I jumped" AI Miyas.h.i.ta. "I found that I jumped" AI Miyas.h.i.ta.

54. "It's only to be expected" "It's only to be expected" Fading Victory: The Diary of Admiral Matome Ugaki, Fading Victory: The Diary of Admiral Matome Ugaki, 194145, Pittsburgh 1991, p. 437. 194145, Pittsburgh 1991, p. 437.

55. "Money-making is the one aim" Quoted Christopher Thorne, "Money-making is the one aim" Quoted Christopher Thorne, The Issue of War The Issue of War, Oxford 1985, p. 124.

56. "Whereas racism in the West" John Dower, "Whereas racism in the West" John Dower, j.a.pan in War and Peace j.a.pan in War and Peace, p. 204. I am indebted to Dower's works for much information in this pa.s.sage.

57. "didn't really feel that I was in a foreign country" AI Sugano. "didn't really feel that I was in a foreign country" AI Sugano.

58. "To our distress, it became evident" Masatake Ok.u.miya and Jiro Horikoshi, "To our distress, it became evident" Masatake Ok.u.miya and Jiro Horikoshi, Zero!: The Story of the j.a.panese Navy Air Force Zero!: The Story of the j.a.panese Navy Air Force, Ca.s.sell 1957, p. 187.

59. "We would like to obtain" Dower, op. cit., pp. 5587. "We would like to obtain" Dower, op. cit., pp. 5587.

60. "Fuhrer Hitler was an enlisted man" John Toland, "Fuhrer Hitler was an enlisted man" John Toland, The Rising Sun The Rising Sun, Ca.s.sell 1971, p. 474.

61. "Arrests for 'peace preservation'" Dower, "Arrests for 'peace preservation'" Dower, War Without Mercy War Without Mercy, pa.s.sim.

62. "I contemplated the hardships" Ugaki diary, op. cit., 2.12.44, p. 527. "I contemplated the hardships" Ugaki diary, op. cit., 2.12.44, p. 527.

63. "It would be nice to say" AI Hashimoto. "It would be nice to say" AI Hashimoto.

64. "His father made occasional visits" AI Watanuki. "His father made occasional visits" AI Watanuki.

65. "Why do we need this?" AI Iki. "Why do we need this?" AI Iki.

66. "Before World War II, j.a.pan's experience" AI Nakamura. "Before World War II, j.a.pan's experience" AI Nakamura.

67. "We were far too influenced" AI Funaki. "We were far too influenced" AI Funaki.

68. "people understood that we were poorly prepared" AI Funaki. "people understood that we were poorly prepared" AI Funaki.