Principles of Teaching Part 8

Just as the first task of the physician is to diagnose his case--to get at the cause of the difficulty before he proceeds to suggest a remedy--so the first consideration of the teacher is a query, "Whom do I teach?"

Man may normally be expected to respond in a particular way to a particular stimulus because men throughout the history of the race have so responded. Certain connections have been established in his nervous system and he acts accordingly--he does what he does because he is _man_. We cannot here go into a detailed discussion of the physiological processes involved in thinking and other forms of behavior, but perhaps we may well set down a statement or two relative to man's tendencies to act, and their explanations:

"The nervous system is composed of neurones of three types: Those that receive, the afferent; those that effect action, the efferent; and those that connect, the a.s.sociative. The meeting places of these neurones are the synapses. All neurones have the three characteristics of sensitivity, conductivity, and modifiability. In order for conduct or feeling or intellect to be present, at least two neurones must be active, and in all but a few of the human activities many more are involved. The possibility of conduct or intelligence depends upon the connections at the synapses,--upon the possibility of the current affecting neurones in a certain definite way. The possession of an 'original nature,' then, means the possession, as a matter of inheritance, of certain connections between neurones, the possession of certain synapses which are in functional contact and across which a current may pa.s.s merely as a matter of structure. Just why certain synapses should be thus connected is the whole question of heredity. Two factors seem to affect the functional contact of a synapses,--first, proximity of the neurone ends, and second, some sort of permeability which makes a current travel on one rather than another of two neurones equally near together in s.p.a.ce. This proximity and permeability are both provided for by the structure and const.i.tution of the nervous system. It should be noted that the connection of neurones is not a one-to-one affair, but the multiplicity of fibrils provided by original nature makes it possible for one afferent to discharge into many neurones, and for one efferent neurone to receive the current from many neurones. Thus the individual when born is equipped with potentialities of character, intellect and conduct, because of the pre-formed connections or tendencies to connections present in his nervous system.

"_Types of Original Responses._--These unlearned tendencies which make up the original nature of the human race are usually cla.s.sified into automatic or physiological actions, reflexes, instincts, and capacities. Automatic actions are such as those controlling the heart-beats, digestive and intestinal movements; the contraction of the pupil of the eye from light, sneezing, swallowing, etc., are reflexes; imitation, fighting, and fear, are instincts, which capacities refer to those more subtle traits by means of which an individual becomes a good linguist, or is tactful, or gains skill in handling tools. However, there is no sharp line of division between these various unlearned tendencies; what one psychologist calls a reflex or a series of reflexes, another will call an instinct. It seems better to consider them as of the same general character but differing from each other in simplicity, definiteness, uniformity of response, variableness among individuals, and modifiability. They range from movements such as the action of the blood vessels to those concerned in hunting and collecting; from the simple, definite, uniform knee-jerk, which is very similar in all people and open to very little modification, to the capacity for scholarship, which is extremely complex, vague as to definition, variable both as to manifestation in one individual and amounts amongst people in general, and is open to almost endless modification. This fund of unlearned tendencies is the capital with which each child starts, the capital which makes education and progress possible, as well as the capital which limits the extent to which progress and development in any line may proceed." _The Psychology of Childhood_, pp. 21, 22, 23.

Weigle, in his _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_, begins his second chapter in a rather unique and helpful manner relative to this same question:

"The little human animal, like every other, is born going. He is already wound up. His lungs expand and contract; his heart is pumping away; his stomach is ready to handle food. These organic, vital activities he does not initiate. They begin themselves. The organism possesses them by nature. They are the very conditions of life.

"There are many other activities, not so obviously vital as these, for which nature winds him up quite as thoroughly--yes, and sets him to go off at the proper time for each. He will suck when brought to the breast as unfailingly as his lungs will begin to work upon contact with the air. He will cry from hunger or discomfort, clasp anything that touches his fingers or toes, carry to his mouth whatever he can grasp, in time smile when smiled at, later grow afraid when left alone or in the dark, manifest anger and affection, walk, run, play, question, imitate, collect things, pull things apart, put them together again, take pleasure in being with friends, act shy before strangers, find a chum, belong to a 'gang' or 'bunch,'

quarrel, fight, become reconciled, and some day fall in love with one of the opposite s.e.x. These, and many more, are just his natural human ways. He does not of purpose initiate them any more than he initiates breathing or heart-beat. He does these things because he is so born and built. They are his instincts."

As Norsworthy and Whitley point out, we are not especially concerned with the boundary lines between automatic actions, reflexes, and instincts--we are rather concerned with the fact that human beings possess native tendencies to act in particular ways. Some psychologists stress them as instincts; others as capacities, but they have all pretty generally agreed that under certain stimuli there are natural tendencies to react.

These tendencies begin to manifest themselves at birth--they are all potentialities with the birth of the child--and continue to develop in turn, certain ones being more p.r.o.nounced in the various stages of the child's life. Colvin in his _The Learning Process_, runs through the complete list of possibilities. According to him man, in a lifetime, is characterized by the following tendencies: Fear, anger, sympathy, affection, play, imitation, curiosity, acquisitiveness, constructiveness, self-a.s.sertion (leadership), self-abas.e.m.e.nt, rivalry, envy, jealousy, pugnacity, clannishness, the hunting and predatory instincts, the migratory instinct, love of adventure and the unknown, superst.i.tion, the s.e.x instincts, which express themselves in s.e.x-love, vanity, coquetry, modesty; and, closely allied with these, the love of nature and of solitude, and the aesthetic, the religious, and the moral emotions.

Sisson, in a little book that every teacher ought to know, _The Essentials of Character_, emphasizes the importance for teaching of ten tendencies: bodily activity, sense-hunger and curiosity, suggestibility, tastes and aesthetic appreciation, self-a.s.sertion, love, joy, fear, the growing-up impulse, the love of approbation.

As already indicated, the teacher should give attention to these tendencies that he may the better know how to proceed. If he knows that the one great outstanding impulse of a boy of seven is to do something, he perhaps will be less likely to plan an hour's recitation on the theory that for that hour the boy is to do nothing. If he knows that one of the greatest tendencies of boys from ten to fourteen is to organize "gangs" for social and "political" purposes, he will very likely capitalize on this idea in building up a good strong cla.s.s spirit.

Knowing that children naturally respond to certain stimuli in very definite ways, the teacher can better set about to furnish the right stimuli--he can be in a better position to _direct and control behavior_.

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER VII

1. What significance attaches to the statement, "Children are born 'going'"?

2. Why is it of vital importance that teachers give attention to the native tendencies in children?

3. What const.i.tutes instinctive action? Ill.u.s.trate.

4. Name the instincts that are essentially individualistic. Those that are essentially social.

5. What native tendencies are of most concern to teachers?

6. Discuss the relative significance of heredity, environment, and training in the development of children.

7. To what extent is a child limited in its development by its nervous system?

HELPFUL REFERENCES

Norsworthy and Whitley, _The Psychology of Childhood_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; Colvin, _The Learning Process_; Sisson, _The Essentials of Character_; Stiles, _The Nervous System and its Conservation_; Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_; Harrison, _A Study of Child Nature_; Kirkpatrick, _Fundamentals of Child Study_.

CHAPTER VIII

"WHAT TO DO WITH NATIVE TENDENCIES"

OUTLINE--CHAPTER VIII

Characteristic tendencies of the various stages of child life.--The teacher's att.i.tude toward them.--Follow the grain.

Four methods of procedure: 1. The method of disuse; 2. The method of rewards and punishment; 3. The method of subst.i.tution; 4. The method of stimulation and sublimation.

Having listed the native tendencies generally, we might well now consider them as they manifest themselves at the various stages of an individual's development. As already indicated, they const.i.tute his birthright as a human being, though most of them are present in the early years of his life only in potentiality. Psychologists of recent years have made extensive observations as to what instincts are most prominent at given periods. Teachers are referred particularly to the volumes of Kirkpatrick, Harrison, and Norsworthy and Whitley. In this latter book, pages 286, 287, and 298-302, will be found an interesting tabulation of characteristics at the age of five and at eleven. For the years of adolescence Professor Beeley, in his course at the Brigham Young Summer School, in the Psychology of Adolescence, worked out very fully the characteristics unique in this period, though many of them, of course, are present at other stages:

CHARACTERISTICS UNIQUE IN THE ADOLESCENT PERIOD

1. Maturing of the s.e.x instincts.

2. Rapid limb growth.

3. Over-awkwardness.

4. Visceral organs develop rapidly (heart, liver, lungs, genital organs.) 5. Change in physical proportions; features take on definite characteristics.

6. Brain structure has matured.

7. Self-awareness.

8. Personal pride and desire for social approval.

9. Egotism.

10. Unstable, "hair-trigger," conflicting emotions.

11. Altruism, sincere interest in the well-being of others.

12. Religious and moral awakening.

13. New att.i.tude.

14. Aesthetic awakening.

15. Puzzle to everybody.

16. Desire to abandon conventionalities, struggle for self-a.s.sertion.

17. Career motive.

18. Period of "palling" and mating; clique and "gang" spirit.

19. Positiveness,--affirmation, denial.

20. Inordinate desire for excessive amus.e.m.e.nt.

21. Evidence of hereditary influences.

22. "Hero worship," castle building.

23. "Wanderl.u.s.t."

24. Hyper-suggestibility.

25. Ideals; ambitions.

27. Yearning for adult responsibility.

Having listed these tendencies we still face the question, "What shall we do with them? What is their significance in teaching?"

It is perfectly clear, in the first place, that we ought not to ignore them. None of them is wholly useless, and few of them can safely be developed just as they first manifest themselves. They call for training and direction.

"Some instincts are to be cherished almost as they are; some rooted out by withholding stimuli, or by making their exercise result in pain or discomfort, or by subst.i.tuting desirable habits in their place; most of the instincts should be modified and redirected."--(_Thorndike._)

Our concern as teachers ought to be that in our work with boys and girls, men and women, we are aware of these natural tendencies that we may work with them rather than contrary to them--that we may "follow the grain" of human nature.