Principles of Geology Part 26

_Straits of Gibraltar._--It is well known that a powerful current sets constantly from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean, and its influence extends along the whole southern borders of that sea, and even to the sh.o.r.es of Asia Minor. Captain Smyth found, during his survey, that the central current ran constantly at the rate of from three to six miles an hour eastward into the Mediterranean, the body of water being three miles and a half wide. But there are also two lateral currents--one on the European, and one on the African side; each of them about two miles and a half broad, and flowing at about the same rate as the central stream. These lateral currents ebb and flow with the tide, setting alternately into the Mediterranean and into the Atlantic. The excess of water constantly flowing in is very great, and there is only one cause to which this can be attributed, the loss of water in the Mediterranean by evaporation. That the level of this sea should be considerably depressed by this cause is quite conceivable, since we know that the winds blowing from the sh.o.r.es of Africa are hot and dry; and hygrometrical experiments recently made in Malta and other places, show that the mean quant.i.ty of moisture in the air investing the Mediterranean is equal only to one half of that in the atmosphere of England. The temperature also of the great inland sea is upon an average higher, by 3 of Fahrenheit, than the eastern part of the Atlantic Ocean in the same lat.i.tude, which must greatly promote its evaporation.

The Black Sea being situated in a higher lat.i.tude, and being the receptacle of rivers flowing from the north, is much colder, and its expenditure far less; accordingly it does not draw any supply from the Mediterranean, but, on the contrary, contributes to it by a current flowing outwards, for the most part of the year, through the Dardanelles. The discharge, however, at the Bosphorus is so small, when compared to the volume of water carried in by rivers, as to imply a great amount of evaporation in the Black Sea.

_Whether salt be precipitated in the Mediterranean._--It is, however, objected, that evaporation carries away only fresh water, and that the current from the Atlantic is continually bringing in salt water: why, then, do not the component parts of the waters of the Mediterranean vary? or how can they remain so nearly the same as those of the ocean?

Some have imagined that the excess of salt might be carried away by an under-current running in a contrary direction to the superior; and this hypothesis appeared to receive confirmation from a late discovery, that the water taken up about fifty miles within the Straits, from a depth of 670 fathoms, contained a quant.i.ty of salt _four times greater_ than the water of the surface. Dr. Wollaston,[457] who a.n.a.lyzed this water obtained by Captain Smyth, truly inferred that an under-current of such denser water flowing outward, if of equal breadth and depth with the current near the surface, would carry out as much salt below as is brought in above, although it moved with less than one-fourth part of the velocity, and would thus prevent a perpetual increase of saltness in the Mediterranean beyond that existing in the Atlantic. It was also remarked by others, that the result would be the same, if the swiftness being equal, the inferior current had only one-fourth of the volume of the superior. At the same time there appeared reason to conclude that this great specific gravity was only acquired by water at immense depths; for two specimens of the water, taken within the Mediterranean, at the distance of some hundred miles from the Straits, and at depths of 400 and even 450 fathoms, were found by Dr. Wollaston not to exceed in density that of many ordinary samples of sea-water. Such being the case, we can now prove that the vast amount of salt brought into the Mediterranean _does not_ pa.s.s out again by the Straits; for it appears by Captain Smyth's soundings, which Dr. Wallaston had not seen, that between the capes of Trafalgar and Spartel, which are twenty-two miles apart, and where the Straits are shallowest, the deepest part, which is on the side of Cape Spartel, is only 220 fathoms. It is therefore evident, that if water sinks in certain parts of the Mediterranean, in consequence of the increase of its specific gravity, to greater depths than 220 fathoms, it can never flow out again into the Atlantic, since it must be stopped by the submarine barrier which crosses the shallowest part of the Straits of Gibraltar.

The idea of the existence of a counter-current, at a certain depth, first originated in the following circ.u.mstances:--M. De l'Aigle, commander of a privateer called the Phoenix of Ma.r.s.eilles, gave chase to a Dutch merchant-ship, near Ceuta Point, and coming up with her in the middle of the gut, between Tariffa and Tangier, gave her one broadside, which directly sunk her. A few days after, the sunken ship, with her cargo of brandy and oil, was cast ash.o.r.e near Tangier, which is at least four leagues to the westward of the place where she went down, and to which she must have floated in a direction contrary to the course of the _central_ current.[458] This fact, however, affords no evidence of an under-current, because the ship, when it approached the coast, would necessarily be within the influence of a lateral current, which running westward twice every twenty-four hours, might have brought back the vessel to Tangier.

What, then, becomes of the excess of salt?--for this is an inquiry of the highest geological interest. The Rhone, the Po, the Nile, and many hundred minor streams and springs, pour annually into the Mediterranean large quant.i.ties of carbonate of lime, together with iron, magnesia, silica, alumina, sulphur, and other mineral ingredients in a state of chemical solution. To explain why the influx of this matter does not alter the composition of this sea has never been regarded as a difficulty; for it is known that calcareous rocks are forming in the delta of the Rhone, in the Adriatic, on the coast of Asia Minor, and in other localities. Precipitation is acknowledged to be the means whereby the surplus mineral matter is disposed of, after the consumption of a certain portion in the secretions of testacea, zoophytes, and other marine animals. But before muriate of soda can, in like manner, be precipitated, the whole Mediterranean ought, according to the received principles of chemistry, to become as much saturated with salt as Lake Aral, the Dead Sea, or the brine-springs of Cheshire.

It is undoubtedly true, in regard to small bodies of water, that every particle must be fully saturated with muriate of soda before a single crystal of salt can be formed; such is probably the case in all natural salterns: such, for example, as those described by travellers as occurring on the western borders of the Black Sea, where extensive marshes are said to be covered by thin films of salt after a rapid evaporation of sea-water. The salt _etangs_ of the Rhone, where salt has sometimes been precipitated in considerable abundance, have been already mentioned. In regard to the depth of the Mediterranean, it appears that between Gibraltar and Ceuta, Captain Smyth sounded to the enormous depth of 950 fathoms, and found there a gravelly bottom, with fragments of broken sh.e.l.ls. Saussure sounded to the depth of two thousand feet, within a few yards of the sh.o.r.e, at Nice; and M. Berard has lately fathomed to the depth of more than six thousand feet in several places without reaching the bottom.[459]

The central abysses, therefore, of this sea are, in all likelihood, at least as deep as the Alps are high; and, as at the depth of seven hundred fathoms only, water has been found to contain a proportion of salt four times greater than at the surface, we may presume that the excess of salt may be much greater at the depth of two or three miles.

After evaporation, the surface water becomes impregnated with a slight excess of salt, and its specific gravity being thus increased, it instantly falls to the bottom, while lighter water rises to the top, or flows in laterally, being always supplied by rivers and the current from the Atlantic. The heavier fluid, when it arrives at the bottom, cannot stop if it can gain access to any lower part of the bed of the sea, not previously occupied by water of the same density.

How far this acc.u.mulation of brine can extend before the inferior strata of water will part with any of their salt, and what difference in such a chemical process the immense pressure of the inc.u.mbent ocean, or the escape of heated vapors, thermal springs, or submarine volcanic eruptions, might occasion, are questions which cannot be answered in the present state of science.

The Straits of Gibraltar are said to become gradually wider by the wearing down of the cliffs on each side at many points; and the current sets along the coast of Africa, so as to cause considerable inroads in various parts, particularly near Carthage. Near the Canopic mouth of the Nile, at Aboukir, the coast was greatly devastated in the year 1784, when a small island was nearly consumed. By a series of similar operations, the old site of the cities of Nicropolis, Taposiris, Parva and Canopus, have become a sand-bank.[460]

CHAPTER XXI.

REPRODUCTIVE EFFECTS OF TIDES AND CURRENTS.

Estuaries, how formed--Silting up of estuaries does not compensate the loss of land on the borders of the ocean--Bed of the German Ocean--Composition and extent of its sand-banks--Strata deposited by currents in the English channel--On the sh.o.r.es of the Mediterranean--At the mouths of the Amazon, Orinoco, and Mississippi--Wide area over which strata may be formed by this cause.

From the facts enumerated in the last chapter, it appears that on the borders of the ocean, currents and tides co-operating with the waves of the sea are most powerful instruments in the destruction and transportation of rocks; and as numerous tributaries discharge their alluvial burden into the channel of one great river, so we find that many rivers deliver their earthy contents to one marine current, to be borne by it to a distance, and deposited in some deep receptacle of the ocean. The current, besides receiving this tribute of sedimentary matter from streams draining the land, acts also itself on the coast, as does a river on the cliffs which bound a valley. Yet the waste of cliffs by marine currents const.i.tutes on the whole a very insignificant portion of the denudation annually effected by aqueous causes, as I shall point out in the sequel of this chapter (p. 339).

In inland seas, where the tides are insensible, or on those parts of the borders of the ocean where they are feeble, it is scarcely possible to prevent a harbor at a river's mouth from silting up; for a bar of sand or mud is formed at points where the velocity of the turbid river is checked by the sea, or where the river and a marine current neutralize each other's force. For the current, as we have seen, may, like the river, hold in suspension a large quant.i.ty of sediment, or, co-operating with the waves, may cause the progressive motion of a shingle beach in one direction. I have already alluded to the erection of piers and groins at certain places on our southern coast, to arrest the course of the shingle and sand (see p. 318). The immediate effect of these temporary obstacles is to cause a great acc.u.mulation of pebbles on one side of the barrier, after which the beach still moves on round the end of the pier at a greater distance from the land. This system, however, is often attended with a serious evil, for during storms the waves throw suddenly into the harbor the vast heap of pebbles which have collected for years behind the groin or pier, as happened during a great gale (Jan. 1839) at Dover.

The formation and keeping open of large estuaries are due to the _combined influence_ of tidal currents and rivers; for when the tide rises, a large body of water suddenly enters the mouth of the river, where, becoming confined within narrower bounds, while its momentum is not destroyed, it is urged on, and, having to pa.s.s through a contracted channel, rises and runs with increased velocity, just as a stream when it reaches the arch of a bridge scarcely large enough to give pa.s.sage to its waters, rushes with a steep fall through the arch. During the ascent of the tide, a body of fresh water, flowing down in an opposite direction from the higher country, is arrested in its course for several hours; and thus a large lake of fresh and brackish water is acc.u.mulated, which, when the sea ebbs, is let loose, as on the removal of an artificial sluice or dam. By the force of this retiring water, the alluvial sediment both of the river and of the sea is swept away, and transported to such a distance from the mouth of the estuary, that a small part only can return with the next tide.

It sometimes happens, that during a violent storm a large bar of sand is suddenly made to shift its position, so as to prevent the free influx of the tides, or efflux of river water. Thus about the year 1500 the sands at Bayonne were suddenly thrown across the mouth of the Adour. That river, flowing back upon itself, soon forced a pa.s.sage to the northward along the sandy plain of Capbreton, till at last it reached the sea at Boucau, at the distance of _seven leagues_ from the point where it had formerly entered. It was not till the year 1579 that the celebrated architect Louis de Foix undertook, at the desire of Henry III., to reopen the ancient channel, which he at last effected with great difficulty.[461]

In the estuary of the Thames at London, and in the Gironde, the tide rises only for five hours and ebbs seven, and in all estuaries the water requires a longer time to run down than up; so that the preponderating force is always in the direction which tends to keep open a deep and broad pa.s.sage. But for reasons already explained, there is naturally a tendency in all estuaries to silt up partially, since eddies, and backwaters, and points where opposing streams meet, are very numerous, and constantly change their position.

Many writers have declared that the gain on our eastern coast, since the earliest periods of history, has more than counterbalanced the loss; but they have been at no pains to calculate the amount of loss, and have often forgotten that, while the new acquisitions are manifest, there are rarely any natural monuments to attest the former existence of the land that has been carried away. They have also taken into their account those tracts artificially recovered, which are often of great agricultural importance, and may remain secure, perhaps, for thousands of years, but which are only a few feet above the mean level of the sea, and are therefore exposed to be overflowed again by a small proportion of the force required to move cliffs of considerable height on our sh.o.r.es. If it were true that the area of land annually abandoned by the sea in estuaries were equal to that invaded by it, there would still be no compensation _in kind_.

The tidal current which flows out from the northwest, and bears against the eastern coast of England, transports, as we have seen, materials of various kinds. Aided by the waves, it undermines and sweeps away the granite, gneiss, trap-rocks, and sandstone of Shetland, and removes the gravel and loam of the cliffs of Holderness, Norfolk, and Suffolk, which are between twenty and three hundred feet in height, and which waste at various rates of from one foot to six yards annually. It also bears away, in co-operation with the Thames and the tides, the strata of London clay on the coast of Ess.e.x and Sheppey. The sea at the same time consumes the chalk with its flints for many miles continuously on the sh.o.r.es of Kent and Suss.e.x--commits annual ravages on the freshwater beds, capped by a thick covering of chalk-flint gravel, in Hampshire, and continually saps the foundations of the Portland limestone. It receives, besides, during the rainy months, large supplies of pebbles, sand, and mud, which numerous streams from the Grampians, Cheviots, and other chains, send down to the sea. To what regions, then, is all this matter consigned? It is not retained in mechanical suspension by the waters of the ocean, nor does it mix with them in a state of chemical solution--it is deposited _somewhere_, yet certainly not in the immediate neighborhood of our sh.o.r.es; for, in that case, there would soon be a cessation of the encroachment of the sea, and large tracts of low land, like Romney Marsh, would almost everywhere encircle our island.

As there is now a depth of water exceeding thirty feet, in some spots where towns like Dunwich flourished but a few centuries ago, it is clear that the current not only carries far away the materials of the wasted cliffs, but is capable also of excavating the bed of the sea to a certain moderate depth.

So great is the quant.i.ty of matter held in suspension by the tidal current on our sh.o.r.es, that the waters are in some places artificially introduced into certain lands below the level of the sea; and by repeating this operation, which is called "warping," for two or three years, considerable tracts have been raised, in the estuary of the Humber, to the height of about six feet. If a current, charged with such materials, meets with deep depressions in the bed of the ocean, it must often fill them up; just as a river, when it meets with a lake in its course, fills it gradually with sediment.

I have said (p. 337) that the action of the waves and currents on sea-cliffs, or their power to remove matter from above to below the sea-level, is insignificant in comparison with the power of rivers to perform the same task. As an ill.u.s.tration we may take the coast of Holderness described in the last chapter (p. 304). It is composed, as we have seen, of very destructible materials, is thirty-six miles long, and its average height may be taken at forty feet. As it has wasted away at the rate of two and a quarter yards annually, for a long period, it will be found on calculation that the quant.i.ty of matter thrown down into the sea every year, and removed by the current, amounts to 51,321,600 cubic feet. It has been shown that the united Ganges and Brahmapootra carry down to the Bay of Bengal 40,000,000,000 of cubic feet of solid matter every year, so that their transporting power is no less than 780 times greater than that of the sea on the coast above-mentioned; and in order to produce a result equal to that of the two Indian rivers, we must have a line of wasting coast, like that of Holderness, nearly 28,000 miles in length, or longer than the entire circ.u.mference of the globe by above 3000 miles. The reason of so great a difference in the results may be understood when we reflect that the operations of the ocean are limited to a single line of cliff surrounding a large area, whereas great rivers with their tributaries, and the mountain torrents which flow into them, act simultaneously on a length of bank almost indefinite.

Nevertheless we are by no means ent.i.tled to infer, that the denuding force of the great ocean is a geological cause of small efficacy, or inferior to that of rivers. Its chief influence is exerted at moderate depths below the surface, on all those areas which are slowly rising, or are attempting, as it were, to rise above the sea. From data hitherto obtained respecting subterranean movements, we can scarcely speculate on an average rate of upheaval of more than two or three feet in a century.

An elevation to this amount is taking place in Scandinavia, and probably in many submarine areas as vast as those which we know to be sinking from the proofs derived from circular lagoon islands or coral atolls.

(See chap. 50.) Suppose strata as destructible as those of the Wealden, or the lower and upper cretaceous formation, or the tertiary deposits of the British Isles to be thus slowly upheaved, how readily might they all be swept away by waves and currents in an open sea! How entirely might each stratum disappear as it was brought up successively and exposed to the breakers! Shoals of wide extent might be produced, but it is difficult to conceive how any continent could ever be formed under such circ.u.mstances. Were it not indeed for the hardness and toughness of the crystalline and volcanic rocks, which are often capable of resisting the action of the waves, few lands might ever emerge from the midst of an open sea.

_Supposed filling up of the German Ocean._--The German Ocean is deepest on the Norwegian side, where the soundings give 190 fathoms; but the mean depth of the whole basin may be stated at no more than thirty-one fathoms.[462] The bed of this sea is traversed by several enormous banks, the greatest of which is the Dogger Bank, extending for upwards of 354 miles from north to south. The whole superficies of these shoals is equal to about one-third of the whole extent of England and Scotland.

The average height of the banks measures, according to Mr. Stevenson, about seventy-eight feet; the upper portion of them consisting of fine and coa.r.s.e siliceous sand, mixed with comminuted corals and sh.e.l.ls.[463]

It had been supposed that these vast submarine hills were made up bodily of loose materials supplied from the waste of the English, Dutch, and other coasts; but the survey of the North Sea, conducted by Captain Hewett, affords ground for suspecting this opinion to be erroneous. If such immense mounds of sand and mud had been acc.u.mulated under the influence of currents, the same causes ought nearly to have reduced to one level the entire bottom of the German Ocean; instead of which some long narrow ravines are found to intersect the banks. One of these varies from seventeen to forty-four fathoms in depth, and has very precipitous sides; in one part, called the "Inner Silver Pits," it is fifty-five fathoms deep. The shallowest parts of the Dogger Bank were found to be forty-two feet under water, except in one place, where the wreck of a ship had caused a shoal. Such uniformity in the minimum depth of water seems to imply that the currents, which vary in their velocity from a mile to two miles and a half per hour, have power to prevent the acc.u.mulation of drift matter in places of less depth.

_Strata deposited by currents._--It appears extraordinary, that in some tracts of the sea, adjoining the coast of England, where we know that currents are not only sweeping along rocky ma.s.ses, thrown down, from time to time, from the high cliffs, but also occasionally scooping out channels in the regular strata, there should exist fragile sh.e.l.ls and tender zoophytes in abundance, which live uninjured by these violent movements. The ocean, however, is in this respect a counterpart of the land; and as, on the continents, rivers may undermine their banks, uproot trees, and roll along sand and gravel, while their waters are inhabited by testacea and fish, and their alluvial plains are adorned with rich vegetation and forests, so the sea may be traversed by rapid currents, and its bed may here and there suffer great local derangement, without any interruption of the general order and tranquillity. It has been ascertained by soundings in all parts of the world, that where new deposits are taking place in the sea, coa.r.s.e sand and small pebbles commonly occur near the sh.o.r.e, while farther from land, and in deeper water, finer sand and broken sh.e.l.ls are spread out over the bottom.

Still farther out, the finest mud and ooze are alone met with. Mr.

Austen observes that this rule holds good in every part of the English Channel examined by him. He also informs us, that where the tidal current runs rapidly in what are called "races," where surface undulations are perceived in the calmest weather, over deep banks, the discoloration of the water does not arise from the power of such a current to disturb the bottom at a depth of 40 or 80 fathoms, as some have supposed. In these cases, a column of water sometimes 500 feet in height, is moving onwards with the tide clear and transparent above, while the lower portion holds fine sediment in suspension (a fact ascertained by soundings), when suddenly it impinges upon a bank, and its height is reduced to 300 feet. It is thus made to boil up and flow off at the surface, a process which forces up the lower strata of water charged with fine particles of mud, which in their pa.s.sage from the coast had gradually sunk to a depth of 300 feet or more.[464]

One important character in the formations produced by currents is, the immense extent over which they may be the means of diffusing h.o.m.ogeneous mixtures, for these are often coextensive with a great line of coast; and, by comparison with their deposits, the deltas of rivers must shrink into significance. In the Mediterranean, the same current which is rapidly destroying many parts of the African coast, between the Straits of Gibraltar and the Nile, checks also the growth of the delta of the Nile, and drifts the sediment of that great river to the eastward. To this source may be attributed the rapid accretions of land on parts of the Syrian sh.o.r.es where rivers do not enter.

Among the greatest deposits now in progress, and of which the distribution is chiefly determined by currents, we may cla.s.s those between the mouths of the Amazon and the southern coast of North America. Captain Sabine found that the equatorial current before mentioned (p. 292) was running with the rapidity of four miles an hour where it crosses the stream of the Amazon, which river preserves part of its original impulse, and has its waters not wholly mingled with those of the ocean at the distance of 300 miles from its mouth.[465] The sediment of the Amazon is thus constantly carried to the northwest as far as to the mouths of the Orinoco, and an immense tract of swamp is formed along the coast of Guiana, with a long range of muddy shoals bordering the marshes, and becoming converted into land.[466] The sediment of the Orinoco is partly detained, and settles near its mouth, causing the sh.o.r.es of Trinidad to extend rapidly, and is partly swept away into the Carribean Sea by the Guinea current. According to Humboldt, much sediment is carried again out of the Carribean Sea into the Gulf of Mexico.

It should not be overlooked that marine currents, even on coasts where there are no large rivers, may still be the agents of spreading not only sand and pebbles, but the finest mud, far and wide over the bottom of the ocean. _For several thousand miles_ along the western coast of South America, comprising the larger parts of Peru and Chili, there is a perpetual rolling of shingle along the sh.o.r.e, part of which, as Mr.

Darwin has shown, are incessantly reduced to the finest mud by the waves, and swept into the depths of the Pacific by the tides and currents. The same author however has remarked that, notwithstanding the great force of the waves on that sh.o.r.e, all rocks 60 feet under water are covered by sea-weed, showing that the bed of the sea is not denuded at that depth, the effects of the winds being comparatively superficial.

In regard to the distribution of sediment by currents it may be observed, that the rate of subsidence of the finer mud carried down by every great river into the ocean, or of that caused by the rolling of the waves upon a sh.o.r.e, must be extremely slow; for the more minute the separate particles of mud, the slower will they sink to the bottom, and the sooner will they acquire what is called their terminal velocity. It is well known that a solid body, descending through a resisting medium, falls by the force of gravity, which is constant, but its motion is resisted by the medium more and more as its velocity increases, until the resistance becomes sufficient to counteract the farther increase of velocity. For example, a leaden ball, one inch diameter, falling through air of density as at the earth's surface, will never acquire greater velocity than 260 feet per second, and, in water, its greatest velocity will be 8 feet 6 inches per second. If the diameter of the ball were 1/100 of an inch, the terminal velocities in air would be 26 feet, and in water 86 of a foot per second.

Now, every chemist is familiar with the fact, that minute particles descend with extreme slowness through water, the extent of their surface being very great in proportion to their weight, and the resistance of the fluid depending on the amount of surface. A precipitate of sulphate of baryta, for example, will sometimes require more than five or six hours to subside one inch;[467] while oxalate and phosphate of lime require nearly an hour to subside about an inch and a half and two inches respectively,[468] so exceedingly small are the particles of which these substances consist.

When we recollect that the depth of the ocean is supposed frequently to exceed three miles, and that currents run through different parts of that ocean at the rate of four miles an hour, and when at the same time we consider that some fine mud carried away from the mouths of rivers and from sea-beaches, where there is a heavy surf, as well as the impalpable powder showered down by volcanoes, may subside at the rate of only an inch per hour, we shall be prepared to find examples of the transportation of sediment over areas of indefinite extent.

It is not uncommon for the emery powder used in polishing gla.s.s to take more than an hour to sink one foot. Suppose mud composed of coa.r.s.er particles to fall at the rate of two feet per hour, and these to be discharged into that part of the Gulf Stream which preserves a mean velocity of three miles an hour for a distance of two thousand miles; in twenty-eight days these particles will be carried 2016 miles, and will have fallen only to a depth of 224 fathoms.

In this example, however, it is a.s.sumed that the current retains its superficial velocity at the depth of 224 fathoms, for which we have as yet no data, although we have seen that the motion of a current may continue at the depth of 100 fathoms. (See above, p. 28.) Experiments should be made to ascertain the rate of currents at considerable distances from the surface, and the time taken by the finest sediment to settle in sea-water of a given depth, and then the geologist may determine the area over which h.o.m.ogeneous mixtures may be simultaneously distributed in certain seas.

CHAPTER XXII.

IGNEOUS CAUSES.

Changes of the inorganic world, _continued_--Igneous causes--Division of the subject--Distinct volcanic regions--Region of the Andes--System of volcanoes extending from the Aleutian isles to the Molucca and Sunda islands--Polynesian archipelago--Volcanic region extending from Central Asia to the Azores--Tradition of deluges on the sh.o.r.es of the Bosphorus, h.e.l.lespont, and Grecian isles--Periodical alternation of earthquakes in Syria and Southern Italy--Western limits of the European region--Earthquakes rarer and more feeble as we recede from the centres of volcanic action.

Extinct volcanoes not to be included in lines of active vents.

We have hitherto considered the changes wrought, since the times of history and tradition, by the continued action of aqueous causes on the earth's surface; and we have next to examine those resulting from igneous agency. As the rivers and springs on the land, and the tides and currents in the sea, have, with some slight modifications, been fixed and constant to certain localities from the earliest periods of which we have any records, so the volcano and the earthquake have, with few exceptions, continued, during the same lapse of time, to disturb the same regions. But as there are signs, on almost every part of our continent, of great power having been exerted by running water on the surface of the land, and by waves, tides, and currents on cliffs bordering the sea, where, in modern times, no rivers have excavated, and no waves or tidal currents undermined--so we find signs of volcanic vents and violent subterranean movements in places where the action of fire or internal heat has long been dormant. We can explain why the intensity of the force of aqueous causes should be developed in succession in different districts. Currents, for example, tides, and the waves of the sea, cannot destroy coasts, shape out or silt up estuaries, break through isthmuses, and annihilate islands, form shoals in one place, and remove them from another, without the direction and position of their destroying and transporting power becoming transferred to new localities. Neither can the relative levels of the earth's crust, above and beneath the waters, vary from time to time, as they are admitted to have varied at former periods, and as it will be demonstrated that they still do, without the continents being, in the course of ages, modified, and even entirely altered, in their external configuration. Such events must clearly be accompanied by a complete change in the volume, velocity, and direction of the streams and land floods to which certain regions give pa.s.sage. That we should find, therefore, cliffs where the sea once committed ravages, and from which it has now retired--estuaries where high tides once rose, but which are now dried up--valleys hollowed out by water, where no streams now flow, is no more than we should expect; these and similar phenomena are the necessary consequences of physical causes now in operation; and if there be no instability in the laws of nature, similar fluctuations must recur again and again in time to come.

But, however natural it may be that the force of running water in numerous valleys, and of tides and currents in many tracts of the sea, should now be _spent_, it is by no means so easy to explain why the violence of the earthquake and the fire of the volcano should also have become locally extinct at successive periods. We can look back to the time when the marine strata, whereon the great ma.s.s of Etna rests, had no existence; and that time is extremely modern in the earth's history.

This alone affords ground for antic.i.p.ating that the eruptions of Etna will one day cease.

Nec quae sulfureis ardet fornacibus, aetna Ignea semper erit, _neque enim fuit ignea semper_,