Outlines of Universal History Part 48

PARTIES AFTER MONROE.--At the expiration of Monroe's second term, there being no choice for president by the people, _John Quincy Adams_, who had long been in public life in various important stations, was chosen by the House of Representatives. His supporters combined with the adherents of _Henry Clay_, who became secretary of state. This alliance was loudly denounced by their opponents as a "bargain." From the close of the last war with Great Britain, a party called by their adversaries "loose constructionists" of the Const.i.tution, of which _Clay_ was a leader,--a party who were in favor of measures like a protective tariff, a national bank, and internal improvements,--as the making of ca.n.a.ls,--to be undertaken by Congress,--had been growing up. It now took the name of _National Republicans_, which was afterwards exchanged for that of _Whigs_. On the other side were the "strict constructionists," who, however, differed among themselves respecting certain measures,--for example, the tariff. In their ranks _Andrew Jackson_ belonged. Of this political tendency, _John C. Calhoun_ of South Carolina became a leading promoter. _Andrew Jackson_ was a favorite candidate for the presidency, and the name of _Democrats_ was applied to his followers.

PRESIDENCY OF JACKSON.--_Jackson_ was elevated to the presidency in 1829. He was a fearless man, an ardent patriot, with a choleric temper and an imperious will. He carried to an unexampled extent a custom, which had begun with _Jefferson_, of supplanting office-holders of the opposite political party by supporters of the administration. This came to be called the "spoils system," from the maxim once quoted in defense of it, that "to the victors belong the spoils."

NULLIFICATION.--During _Jackson's_ administration, there occurred the "nullification" crisis. In 1828 a new protective tariff had been pa.s.sed, which was regarded in the South, especially in South Carolina, as extremely unjust and injurious. The New England States had been averse to protection; and in 1816 _Daniel Webster_ opposed the tariff measure as specially hurtful to the Eastern States, whose capital was so largely invested in commerce. After the protective policy had been adopted, and when, under its shield, manufacturing had been extensively established in the North, the former adversaries of protection, with _Webster_, as well as _Clay_, who had been a protectionist before, thought it unfair and destructive to do away with the tariff. Its adversaries denounced it as unconst.i.tutional. _Calhoun_ and his followers, moreover, contended that _nullification_ is legal and admissible; in other words, that a law of Congress may be set aside by a State within its own limits, provided it is considered by that State a gross infraction of the Const.i.tution. There was a memorable debate on this subject in 1830, in the United States Senate, when the State-rights theory was advocated by _Robert Y. Hayne_ of South Carolina, and the opposite doctrine defended by _Webster_. In 1832 South Carolina pa.s.sed an ordinance declaring that the tariff laws of 1828 and 1832 were null and void, and not binding in that State. President _Jackson_ issued a spirited proclamation in which the nullification doctrine was repudiated, and the opposite, or national, theory was affirmed, and the President's resolute intention to execute the laws of the United States was announced. The difficulty was ended by the compromise tariff introduced by _Henry Clay_, providing for the gradual reduction of duties (1833).

REMOVAL OF THE DEPOSITS.--The President was hostile to the National Bank, which he considered dangerous, as liable to be converted into a tool for partisan ends. Not being able to carry Congress with him, he a.s.sumed the responsibility, after his second election, of removing the deposits, or public funds, from its custody, or, rather, of an order for the cessation of these deposits. For this he was censured by the Senate, a majority of which regarded his act as arbitrary and unconst.i.tutional.

ANTI-SLAVERY AGITATION.--From about this time, the agitation respecting slavery constantly increased. In the North a party arose, which, through lectures and in newspapers and pamphlets, denounced slavery as iniquitous, and called for immediate emanc.i.p.ation. The most prominent leader of this party was _William Lloyd Garrison_, and its most captivating orator was _Wendell Phillips_. This party advocated disunion, on account of the obligations imposed upon the North in reference to slavery by the Const.i.tution. They were sometimes a.s.sailed by mobs in Northern cities. The major part of the people in the North desired some method of extinguishing slavery which should leave the Union intact. Meantime they were for obeying the Const.i.tution, although the obligation to restore fugitive slaves was felt to be obnoxious, and there grew up a disposition to avoid compliance with it. The "colonizationists" diminished in number. There were various types and degrees of anti-slavery sentiment. The resolution to confine slavery, by political action, within the limits of the States where it was under the shield of local law, became more and more prevalent. In the South, on the contrary, the enmity to "abolitionism" was intense, and served to increase the popularity of the doctrine of State-rights. Slavery came to be defended as necessary under the circ.u.mstances, and as capable of justification on moral and Scriptural grounds. Occasions of reciprocal complaint between North and South, for illegal doings relating in one way or another to slavery, tended to multiply.

ANNEXATION OF TEXAS.--In 1836 _Texas_ declared its independence of Mexico. General _Sam Houston_, an emigrant from Tennessee, was the leader in the revolt. He defeated the Mexicans under _Santa Ana_, at the _San Jacinto_ (1836). In 1845, largely by the agency of Mr. _Calhoun_, Texas, by an Act of Congress, was annexed to the United States. The motive which he avowed was the fear that it might fall into the hands of England, and become dangerous to the inst.i.tution of slavery in the South. The measure was strenuously opposed in the North as a scheme by which it was intended to strengthen the influence of the slaveholding States in Congress. It was favored, for the same reason, by those who were inimical to abolitionism in whatever form.

WAR WITH MEXICO.--A consequence of the acquisition of Texas was a war with _Mexico_. The successes of Gen. _Zachary Taylor_ at _Palo Alto_ and _Monterey_ (1846), and at _Buena Vista_ (1847), and the campaign of Gen. _Winfield Scott_, who captured _Vera Cruz_, fought his way through the pa.s.s of _Cerro Gordo_, and at length entered the city of _Mexico_ (Sept. 14, 1847), compelled the Mexicans to agree to the Treaty of _Guadaloupe Hidalgo_ (1848). By this treaty all claim on Texas to the Rio Grande was relinquished, together with the provinces of _Upper California_ and _New Mexico_.

THE "WILMOT PROVISO."--The Wilmot Proviso was proposed in Congress, excluding slavery from all territory to be acquired from Mexico. This demand for the prevention of the further extension of slavery in the territories subject to national jurisdiction, became a rallying-cry. On the nomination of General _Taylor_ to the presidency by the Whigs (1848), a "Free-Soil" party was organized on this basis,--the precursor of the Republican party. The convention which nominated _Taylor_ laid on the table a motion approving of the Wilmot Proviso. The Whigs succeeded in the election, but their party lost a portion of its adherents.

CLAY'S COMPROMISE.--The application of _California_ for admission to the Union, which, on account of the rapid growth of that community through the discovery of gold, was soon made, brought the sectional difficulty to another crisis. _President Taylor_ died (July 9, 1850), and was succeeded by _Millard Fillmore_, the vice-president. The contest in Congress was soon after adjusted by _Clay's_ compromise, by which _California_ was admitted as a free State, _Utah_ and _New Mexico_ were organized into Territories without any mention of slavery, the slave-trade was prohibited in the District of Columbia, and a new fugitive-slave law was enacted, that was framed in such a way as to give great offense at the North. _Webster_, in a celebrated speech in favor of the compromise (March 7), gave as a reason for not insisting on the Wilmot Proviso, that the physical character of the new Territories of itself excluded slavery from them.

THE KANSAS TROUBLES.--In 1854, during the administration of _Franklin Pierce_, the standing sectional controversy reached a new phase. Two Territories, _Kansas_ and _Nebraska_, were knocking at the doors of Congress for admission as States. _Kansas_ lay west of Missouri, and, like _Nebraska_ on the north, was protected from slavery by the Missouri Compromise (p. 601). But the Democrats carried through Congress a bill introduced by Mr. _Douglas_ of Illinois, practically repealing that compromise, and leaving the matter of the toleration of slavery to be determined by the actual settlers as they might see fit. This measure was extensively regarded in the North as a breach of faith. Companies of emigrants were organized in the Northern States, to form permanent settlements in _Kansas_; and in order to prevent that country from becoming a free State, marauders from _Missouri_ crossed the line, to attack them, and to hara.s.s the newly planted colonies.

THE DRED-SCOTT CASE.--_James Buchanan_ became president in 1857. At this time the Supreme Court decided that neither negro slaves nor their descendants, slave or free, could become citizens of the United States; and added incidentally the dictum that the Missouri Compromise was unconst.i.tutional, and that Congress had no right to prohibit the carrying of slaves into any State or Territory. The effect of this opinion, if embodied in a legal decision, would have been to prevent the exclusion of slavery, even by a Territorial legislature, prior to the existence of the State government. This judicial act, following upon the att.i.tude taken by the government at Washington with reference to the Kansas troubles, greatly strengthened the numbers and stimulated the determination of the Republican party in the Northern States.

THE JOHN BROWN RAID.--An occurrence not without a considerable effect in exciting the resentment, as well as the apprehensions, of the South, was the attempt of _John Brown_, a brave old man of the Puritan type, whose enmity to slavery had been deepened by conflict and suffering in the Kansas troubles, to stir up an insurrection of slaves in Virginia. With a handful of armed men, he seized the United States a.r.s.enal at _Harper's Ferry_ in Virginia. Half of his followers were killed: he himself was captured, and, after being tried and convicted by the State authorities, was hanged (Dec. 2, 1859).

SECESSION OF STATES.--In the election of 1860, _Abraham Lincoln_ received the electoral vote of every Northern State except New Jersey. The conviction of the Southern political leaders that the anti-slavery feeling of the North, with its great and growing preponderance in wealth and population, would dictate the policy of the general government, determined them to attempt to break up the Union. The result, it was expected, would be the permanent establishment of a slave-holding confederacy, or the obtaining of new const.i.tutional guaranties and safeguards of the inst.i.tution of slavery; which, it was felt, would be undermined even if nothing more were done than to prevent the spread of it beyond the States where it existed. _South Carolina_ pa.s.sed an ordinance of secession (Dec. 20, 1860), and was followed in this act by _Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana,_ and _Texas_. The delegates of the seceding States met at _Montgomery_, Ala., and formed a new government under the name of the Confederate States of America (Feb. 8, 1861). _Jefferson Davis_ was elected president, and _Alexander H. Stephens_ vice-president. Except at _Pensacola_ in Florida, and in _Charleston_, all the national property within the borders of the seceding States was seized. Efforts looking to compromise and conciliation were of no effect. After the accession of Mr. _Lincoln_, the purpose of the government to send supplies to the garrison of _Fort Sumter_ in the harbor of Charleston, caused the Confederates to attack that fortress, which the commander, Major _Anderson_, after a gallant defense, was obliged to surrender. President _Lincoln_ immediately issued a proclamation calling for seventy-five thousand volunteers to serve for three months, and called Congress together (April 15). There was a great uprising in the Northern States. The President's call for troops at once met with an enthusiastic response. _Virginia_, _Arkansas_, _Tennessee_, and _North Carolina_ now joined the Southern Confederacy, the capital of which was established at _Richmond_. Great Britain recognized the Confederate States as having the rights of belligerents (May 13). France did the same.

EVENTS OF THE WAR IN 1861-62.--Only a brief account can be given of the events of the war. General _Winfield Scott_ was at first in command of the Union forces, and General _J. E. Johnston_ of the forces of the Confederates. It was imagined at the North, that there could be an easy and quick advance of the Federal forces to _Richmond_; but the troops were not drilled, and the preparations for a campaign were wholly inadequate. The Union troops were defeated at _Bull Run_, or _Mana.s.sas_, and _Washington_ was thrown into a panic (July 21, 1861). Congress at once adopted energetic measures for raising a large army and for building a navy. General _George B. McClellan_ was placed in command of the forces. It was foreseen on both sides, that the result of the conflict might depend on the course taken by foreign powers, especially by England. The South counted upon the demand for cotton as certain to secure English help, direct or indirect, for the Southern cause. Mr. _Charles Francis Adams_ was selected by Mr. _Seward_, the secretary of state, to represent the Union at the Court of St. James. The Confederates sent abroad Mr. _Mason_ and Mr. _Slidell_ to procure the full recognition of the new Confederacy by England and France. The _Trent_, on which they sailed, was stopped by Captain _Wilkes_ of the United States Navy, and the commissioners taken from it. This breach of international law threatened war, which was averted by the surrender of the two captives to England. England, however, refused to a.s.sent to _Louis Napoleon's_ proposal to recognize the independence of the seceding States; but the laxness of the British Government in not preventing the fitting out of vessels of war in her ports, to prey on American commerce, excited indignation in the United States. _Palmerston_ was at the head of the cabinet, and Lord _John Russell_ was secretary for foreign affairs. For the depredations of the _Alabama_, the tribunal chosen to arbitrate at the end of the war, and meeting at Geneva, condemned England to pay to the United States an indemnity of fifteen and a half millions of dollars. Early in 1862 _Fort Henry_ on the Tennessee, and _Fort Donelson_ on the c.u.mberland, were taken by General _Ulysses S. Grant_, who led the land forces, and Commodore _A. H. Foote_, who commanded the gunboats. At Fort Donelson nearly fifteen thousand prisoners were captured. _Grant_ fought the battle of Pittsburg Landing, or _Shiloh_, which continued two days (April 6, 7), and ended in the retreat of the Confederates. Their general, _A. S. Johnston_, was killed, and the command of his troops devolved on _Beauregard_. _Grant_, who had been reinforced by _Buell_, drove the Confederates back to _Corinth_, Miss., nineteen miles distant. The capture of _Island Number Ten_, by _Pope_, followed; and soon _Memphis_ was in the hands of the Union forces. _Farragut_ ran the gauntlet of the forts at New Orleans (April 24), and captured that city. In the East the Union forces had not been so successful. The iron-sheathed frigate _Merrimac_ destroyed the Union fleet at _Hampton Roads_ (March 9), but was driven back to _Gosport_ by the timely appearance of the iron-clad Union vessel, the _Monitor_. _McClellan_ undertook to approach _Richmond_ by the peninsula. The campaign lasted from March to July, and included, besides various other engagements, the important battles of _Fair Oaks_, and of _Malvern Hill_ (July 1). At the end of June the Union army was driven back to Harrison's Landing on the James River. Meantime the Confederate general, _Jackson_, in the valley of the Shenandoah, repulsed _Fremont, Banks_, and _McDowell_, and joined General _Robert E. Lee_, the commander of the Confederate forces, who now pressed forward towards Washington. _Pope_ was defeated at _Mana.s.sas_ (Aug. 29, 30), and _Lee_ crossed the Potomac into Maryland. He was met by _McClellan_, and defeated at _Antietam_ (Sept. 17), but was able to withdraw in safety across the river. _McClellan_ was superseded by _Burnside_, who was defeated by _Lee_ at _Fredericksburg_ (Dec. 13).

EMANc.i.p.aTION.--On the 1st of January, 1863, President _Lincoln_ issued a proclamation declaring all slaves in States or parts of States in rebellion, to be free. This act was legally possible only as a belligerent measure, or as an exercise of the right of a commander. The refusal of the Government to carry on the war for the direct purpose of emanc.i.p.ation, or to adopt measures of this character before,--measures which the Const.i.tution did not permit,--was not understood in foreign countries, and, in England especially, had tended to chill sympathy with the Northern cause. Regiments of negro soldiers were now formed.

THE FIRST SIX MONTHS OF 1863.--_Hooker_ succeeded _Burnside_ in command of the Potomac Army, and was defeated by _Lee_ at _Chancellorsville_ (May 3). There _"Stonewall" Jackson_, one of the best and bravest of the Confederate generals, lost his life. _Lee_ now crossed the river, and entered _Pennsylvania_. This was the critical moment in the struggle. Great pains were taken, by such people in the North as were disaffected with the administration at Washington, to manifest hostility to the war, or to the method in which it was prosecuted. A riot broke out in the city of New York while the drafts for troops were in progress, and it was several days before it was put down. The defeat of _Lee_ by _Meade_ at _Gettysburg_ (July 1-3) turned the tide against the Confederates; their army again retired beyond the Potomac. At the same time, in the West, General _Grant_ captured _Vicksburg_ with upwards of thirty thousand men (July 4), and _Port Hudson_ was taken. The Mississippi was thus opened to its mouth. The Union navy acted effectively on the Atlantic coast, and at the end of the year nearly all the Southern ports were closed by blockades.

VICTORIES AT CHATTANOOGA.--_Grant_ a.s.sumed command of the military division of the Mississippi, including the region between the Alleghanies and that river. With the Army of the c.u.mberland under _Thomas_, with reinforcements from Vicksburg under _Sherman_ and from the Army of the Potomac under _Hooker_, he won the victories of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, at _Chattanooga_, Tennessee (Nov. 24 and 25). This success opened a path for the Union forces into Alabama and the Atlantic States.

_Sherman_ was sent to reinforce _Burnside_ in Tennessee, and defeated _Longstreet._

TO THE SURRENDER OF LEE.--_Grant_ was made lieutenant-general, or first in command under the President (March 7, 1864). Three attempts to reach Richmond, made severally by _McClellan_, _Hooker_, and _Burnside_, had failed, as Lee's two aggressive movements had been defeated at _Antietam_ and _Gettysburg_. The "border States"

in the West were in the hands of the Union forces, as well as the lower Mississippi; and the blockade was maintained along the Atlantic coast. The plan now was for _Sherman_ to secure _Georgia_, and to march eastward and northward into the heart of the Confederacy, starting at _Chattanooga_. Military operations, which had been prosecuted over so vast an extent of territory, now began to have a unity which they had greatly missed before. _Grant_ personally took command of the Army of the Potomac. His object was to get between Lee's army and Richmond. This object was not effected; but the sanguinary battle of _the Wilderness_ (May 5, 6), and other subsequent battles, had the effect, in the course of six weeks, to push _Lee_ back within the fortifications of _Petersburg_ and _Richmond_. During the long siege of these places, diversions were attempted by _Early_ in Maryland and Pennsylvania; but he was repelled and defeated by _Sheridan_. The Confederate vessel _Alabama_ was sunk in the English Channel by the _Kearsarge_ (June, 1864). _Farragut_ captured the forts in _Mobile Bay_. _Sherman's_ forces, after a series of engagements, entered _Atlanta_, Ga., which the Confederates had been compelled to evacuate (Sept. 2). A detachment was sent by _Sherman_, under _Thomas_, after _Hood_, which defeated him at _Nashville_ (Dec. 15, 16). _Sherman_ marched through Georgia, and entered _Savannah_ (Dec. 21). On Feb. 1, 1865, he commenced his movement northward. The attempts of General _J. E. Johnston_ to check his advance were ineffectual. _Sherman_ entered _Columbia_, S. C., and pushed on to _Raleigh_; _Johnston_, whose numbers were inferior, retiring as he approached. The efforts of _Lee_ to break away from _Grant_, in order to effect a junction with _Johnston_, did not succeed. _Sheridan's_ victory over _Lee_ at _Five Forks_ (April 1) compelled him to evacuate _Petersburg_. He was pursued and surrounded by _Grant_, and surrendered his army at _Appomattox Court House_ (April 9). The Union forces had entered _Richmond_ (April 2). _Johnston_ surrendered his forces to _Sherman_ (April 26). _Jefferson Davis_ was captured by a body of Union cavalry in Georgia (May 10).

MURDER OF LINCOLN.--The joy felt in the North over the complete victory of the Union cause was turned into grief by the a.s.sa.s.sination of President _Lincoln_ (April 14), who had begun his second term on the 4th of March. He was shot in a theater in Washington, by a fanatic named _Booth_, who imagined that he was avenging wrongs of the South. An attempt was made at the same time to murder Secretary _Seward_ in his bed. The a.s.sailant inflicted on him severe but not fatal wounds.

Mr. _Lincoln_ had taken a strong hold upon the affections of the people. With a large store of plain common-sense, with an even temper, an abounding good-nature, and a humor that cast wise thoughts into the form of pithy maxims and similes, he combined an unflinching firmness, and loyalty to his convictions of duty. He refused to be hurried to the issue of an edict of emanc.i.p.ation, which, as he judged, if prematurely framed, would lose to the Union cause the great States of Maryland, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Missouri. Keeping steadily before him the prime object of the war, he inculcated, as he felt, malice toward none, and charity for all. What _Clarendon_ says of _Cromwell_ is true of _Lincoln_: "As he grew into place and authority, his parts seemed to be raised, as if he had had concealed faculties, till he had occasion to use them."

FINANCES IN THE WAR.--The Confederate Government had carried on the war by the issue of paper money made redeemable on the condition of success in gaining independence. This currency, of course, became worthless. The debt of the United States at the close of the war had risen from about sixty-five millions to more than twenty-seven hundred millions of dollars, not to speak of the debts incurred by States and towns.

AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSt.i.tUTION.--The _Thirteenth_ Amendment to the Const.i.tution (declared in force Dec. 18, 1865) prohibited slavery in the United States. The _Fourteenth_ Amendment (declared in force July 28, 1868) secured to all the freedmen the right of citizenship and equality under State law, and ordained that the basis of representation in each State should be reduced in proportion to any abridgment by State law of the right of suffrage in its male population. The Fifteenth Amendment (declared in force March 30, 1870) forbade the abridgment of the right to vote, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. The effect of the amendments was to confer on the blacks the civil and political rights enjoyed by the whites.

RECONSTRUCTION: ADMINISTRATION OF JOHNSON.--The Southern States were conquered communities; but the theory was held that they had not been, and could not be in law, dissevered from the Union. The difficulty of reconstructing State governments was aggravated by the fact that the bulk of the intelligent people in the seceding States were precluded, or excluded themselves, from taking part in the measures requisite for this end; by the additional fact of the ignorance of the blacks, and of the selfish greed of white adventurers who took the place of leaders among them; and by dissensions in the North, and in the administration at Washington, as to the right and lawful course to be pursued. The President, _Andrew Johnson_, who succeeded _Lincoln_, became involved in a contest with the dominant Republican party in Congress, on questions pertaining to reconstruction. He was impeached and tried by the Senate (Feb. 24-May 16, 1868), but the number of votes for his conviction was one less than the number required. On the expiration of _Johnson's_ term, General _Grant_ was raised to the presidential office. It was complained, that the new governments inst.i.tuted in the South by the freedmen and their white coadjutors were grossly corrupt and incapable, and that their "returning boards" made false results of elections. On the other hand, it was complained, that the opponents of these governments resorted to violence and fraud to intimidate their political adversaries, and to keep them out of office. The troops of the United States, which had sustained the officers appointed by the blacks and by their white allies in several of the States, were at length withdrawn; and political power was resumed throughout the South by the adverse party, or the cla.s.s which had contended against what were derisively styled "carpet-bag"

governments. A difficulty arose in 1876, in consequence of a dispute about the result of the presidential election. It was referred to an "Electoral Commission" appointed by Congress, and _Rutherford B. Hayes_ was declared to be chosen (1877-1881). During his administration (Jan. 1, 1879) the banks and the government resumed specie payments, which had been suspended since an early date in the civil war. The rapid diminution of the national debt is one of the important features of later American history. The Republicans succeeded in the next national election; but General _Garfield_, who was chosen President, was mortally wounded by an a.s.sa.s.sin (July 2, 1881), a few months after his inauguration. _Guiteau_, who committed the causeless and ruthless deed, claimed to be "inspired by the Deity," but was judged to be morally and legally responsible, and died on the gallows. _Chester A. Arthur_, the Vice-president, filled the highest office for the remainder of the presidential term. At the election in 1884 _Grover Cleveland_, Governor of New York, was elected as Chief Magistrate; and the Democrats, for the first time since the retirement of Mr. _Buchanan_ and the inauguration of Mr. _Lincoln_ (in 1861), took the reins of power into their hands; the Republicans, however, retaining a majority in the Senate. _Benjamin Harrison_ (Republican) succeeded _Cleveland_ as President, 1889. The McKinley Tariff Bill, 1890, reduced the duty on some imports, but increased them heavily on others. In 1892 the four hundredth anniversary of America's discovery was celebrated, and _Grover Cleveland_, Democratic nominee, was again elected to the presidency. The revival of industry and prosperity in the Southern States, and efforts for popular education for the blacks as well as whites, are circ.u.mstances worthy of special record.

GRANT AND LEE.--About two months after his retirement from the presidency, General _Grant_ began a tour of the world. He landed in San Francisco from j.a.pan, on his return, in September, 1879, after an absence of nearly two years and a half. In 1880 an effort was made by his warm political supporters to bring him forward as a candidate of the Republicans for a third term in the presidency. This effort failed, as had a similar endeavor, made with less vigor, four years before. The remainder of his days were spent in private life. His death occurred on July 23, 1885. He was buried in New York, on Aug. 8, with distinguished honors. General _Lee_, the commander of the Confederate forces in the civil war, from the close of the struggle to his death (Oct. 12, 1870) was president of Washington and Lee University, at Lexington, Va.

UTAH: THE MORMONS.--The sect of Mormons was founded in _Manchester, N. Y._, in 1830, by _Joseph Smith_, a native of Vermont, who claimed to have received heavenly visions from the time when he was fifteen years old. He pretended that he was guided by an angel to the spot, near _Manchester_, where was buried a stone box containing a volume made up of thin gold plates, which were covered with strange characters in the "reformed Egyptian" tongue. This "Book of Mormon"

was really a ma.n.u.script composed, in 1812, for quite another purpose, by one _Solomon Spaulding_, who had been a preacher. A copy of it made by a printer, _Sidney Rigdon_, fell into the hands of _Joseph Smith_. It contains fabulous stories of the settlement of refugees coming from the Tower of Babel to America, who were followed in 600 B.C. by a colony from Jerusalem that landed on the coast of Chili. War broke out among their descendants, from the bad part of whom the North American Indians sprung. One of the survivors of the better cla.s.s of these Hebrews, named _Mormon_, collected in a volume the books of records of former kings and priests, which, with some additions from his son, was buried until the prophet chosen of G.o.d should appear. In style the Book of Mormon endeavors to imitate the English version of the Scriptures. On the basis of this volume and of its alleged miraculous origin, _Smith_ founded the sect of "Latter Day Saints," as he styled them. From _Kirtland, O._, where they came in 1831, and where the converts were numerous, they removed to a place which they named _New Jerusalem_, in Jackson County, Mo. Here they were joined by _Brigham Young_, also a native of Vermont, a man of much energy and shrewdness. _Smith_ was charged by the Missourians, and some of his own followers who deserted him, with outrageous crimes and frauds. The conflict between the Mormons and the Missourians resulted in the migration of the former to _Nauvoo_ in Illinois, where a community was organized in which _Smith_ exercised supreme power. In 1843 Smith, who was as profligate as he was knavish, professed to receive a revelation sanctioning polygamy. His bad conduct, and that of his adherents, brought on a conflict with the civil authorities. Smith, with his brother, was killed in the jail by a mob. Driven out of _Nauvoo_, the Mormons (1848) made their way to Utah, and founded _Salt Lake City_. Their systematic efforts to obtain converts brought to them a large number from the ignorant working-cla.s.s in Great Britain and in Sweden and Norway. The Territory of Utah was organized by Congress in 1849. The laws and officers of the United States, however, were treated with defiance and openly resisted by Brigham Young, the Mormon leader; and he was removed from the office of governor, to which he had been appointed by President _Fillmore_. A contest with the United States authorities was succeeded by the submission of the Mormons in 1858. In 1871 efforts for the suppression of polygamy by law were undertaken by the Federal Government, and have since been continued with imperfect success. _Brigham Young_ died in 1877, and was succeeded in the presidency of the Mormons by _John Taylor_, an Englishman. A body of anti-polygamist seceders from the Mormon community, including a son of _Brigham Young_, has been formed. Another Mormon sect opposed to polygamy, calling itself the "Reorganized Church of Latter Day Saints," originated in 1851. The number of professed believers in the strange and grotesque tenets of Mormonism, in all the different places where its disciples are found, probably exceeds two hundred thousand.

THE FORMATION OF THE STATES.--The "_District of Maine_" formed a part of Ma.s.sachusetts from 1651 to 1820, when it was admitted to the Union as a distinct State. Its northern boundary was not clearly defined until the treaty of 1842 between the United States and England, which was made by Mr. _Webster_ and Lord _Ashburton_. The _North-West Territory_, which was organized in 1789, comprised the cessions north of the Ohio and as far west as the Mississippi, which had been made by the "landed States;" that is, the several States holding portions of this region. A small portion, "the Western Reserve," was retained by Connecticut until 1795, when it was sold to the National Government. Out of this "North-West Territory," there were formed five States. Connected with the name of each is the date of its admission to the Union: Ohio (1802), Indiana (1816), Illinois (1818), Michigan (1837), Wisconsin (1848). South of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi, lay the territory belonging to Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. From this, the cession of Virginia formed the State of Kentucky (1792); that of the Carolinas formed Tennessee (1796); that of Georgia formed Alabama (1819) and Mississippi (1817). The extensive territory called _Louisiana_ was ceded by France to Spain in 1762, was ceded back to France in 1801, and purchased by the United States in 1803. From this territory, there have been formed the States of Louisiana (1812), Missouri (1820), Arkansas (1836), Iowa (1846), Minnesota (1858), Kansas (1861), Nebraska (1867), Colorado (1876), Montana and the two Dakotas (1889), Wyoming (1890), and Oklahoma and Indian Territories. From the cession of Florida by Spain (1819), the State of Florida was formed (1845). _Oregon_ was claimed by the United States by the right of prior discovery: it was organized as a Territory in 1849; the Territory of Washington was formed from it in 1853, and Idaho in 1863. Oregon was admitted as a State in 1859, Washington in 1889, and Idaho in 1890. Texas was admitted to the Union in 1845. From the cessions of Mexico (1848) there have been formed the States of California (1850) and Nevada (1864), and the Territories of Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. West Virginia was formed into a distinct State in 1863, in consequence of the secession of Virginia.

MEXICO.

THE FRENCH INVASION: MAXIMILLIAN.--After the close of the war with the United States (1848), there continued to be a war of factions in Mexico. There was a democratic party, which obtained the upper hand in 1857, but was opposed by the church party. The clergy and the religious bodies were possessed of nearly one-half of the landed property in the country. _Benito Juarez_, who had been chief justice, became president; but he was resisted by the clerical party, with their military supporters, and there was civil war (1857-58). _Juarez_ was recognized as the lawful president by the United States. Spain, France, and England demanded reparation for injuries and losses suffered in Mexico by their subjects. In December, 1861, and January, 1862, they landed troops at _Vera Cruz_, to compel Mexico to satisfy their claims. The demands of England and Spain were met, and they withdrew their forces. It became clear, however, that _Louis Napoleon_, who refused to recognize _Juarez_, had an ulterior design to overthrow the Mexican government, and to establish an empire in its place. It was a part of a visionary scheme to establish the domination of "the Latin race." He expected to check the progress of the United States, and ventured on this aggressive enterprise on account of the opportunity offered by the civil war in America. He persuaded the Archduke _Maximilian_, the brother of _Francis Joseph_, emperor of Austria, to accept the throne, and agreed to sustain him with men and money. _Maximilian_ arrived in Mexico in 1864. Large bodies of French troops fought on his side. The war resolved itself into a guerrilla contest, in which great cruelties were perpetrated on both sides. The end of the American civil war put the Government of the United States in a position to demand of _Louis Napoleon_ the withdrawal of the French forces. His own situation in France, and the state of public opinion there, prevented him from refusing this demand. The folly, as well as criminality, of the undertaking, had become more and more obvious. He therefore decided to violate his promises to _Maximilian_. Deserted thus by his defenders, this prince, who, although misled by ambition, had n.o.ble traits, was captured by the troops of _Juarez_, tried by court-martial, and shot (1867). His wife _Carlotta_, the daughter of _Leopold I_. of Belgium, and the grand-daughter of _Louis Philippe_, failing in negotiations at Rome, had lost her reason. _Juarez_ was installed in power at the capital. In 1868 and 1869, there was a succession of insurrections and revolutions; but he was again elected in 1871, and died the next year. After that time, there was more tranquillity in Mexico, and much was done to develop the mines and other material resources of the country, and for public education.

DIAZ: INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS.--President _Juarez_ died in 1872, and was succeeded by _Lerdo de Tejada_. Under him the authority of the State over the Church was maintained. The monastic orders were abolished. The democratic const.i.tution, which had been framed in 1857, was amended (1873-4), and was afterwards upheld against the efforts of the reactionary or ecclesiastical party to overthrow it. In 1876, there were three claimants of the presidency,--_Tejada, Iglesias_, the chief justice, who denied the validity of his election, and Gen. _Porfirio Diaz_, who was at the head of a revolt. _Diaz_ established himself in power, and was succeeded in 1880 by _Manuel Gonzalez_. On the expiration of his term (1884), _Diaz_ was once more chosen to the same office. In 1891 an insurrection, headed by _Catarino Garza_, a journalist, and General _Riez Sandival_, was directed against the Diaz government. It was put down and _Diaz_ was re-elected president, July 11, 1892. Under _Diaz_ and his coadjutors much was done for the development of the country. Mexico has advanced towards a stable government in the republican form.

SOUTH AMERICA.

BRAZIL.--After returning to Portugal, King John recognized the independence of Brazil, and his son Dom Pedro as emperor of the country (1825), although John kept the t.i.tle during his lifetime (p. 553). The two crowns were not to be united. On the death of his father (1826), Dom Pedro resigned his claim to the throne of Portugal. His subsequent career in Brazil was a troublous one, owing to his contest with a liberal party. He returned to Spain in 1831. After his departure there were party contests under a regency. In 1840 Dom Pedro II., who had been left behind in Brazil by his father, and was then fourteen years of age, was proclaimed emperor. Measures were taken against the slave-trade, and it was finally abolished; an effective plan for the gradual emanc.i.p.ation of slaves was adopted (1871). Rosas, dictator of Buenos Ayres, who intended to subvert the republics of Uruguay and Paraguay, was defeated by the Brazilian forces and their allies (1852). A long war against Lopez, dictator of Paraguay, ended in his capture and death (1870). This war involved losses to Brazil in men and money. Under Dom Pedro II., public works, manufactures, and commerce were promoted. A long strife of the government with the Catholic hierarchy ended in an accommodation (1875). In November, 1889, as the result of a bloodless revolution, Dom Pedro II. was dethroned, and a republican form of government declared. In Feb., 1891, Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca was confirmed as President, resigned in November, and was succeeded by Vice-President Floriano Peixoto, who held office until Nov. 15, 1894, when Prudente de Moraes, the first Brazilian President elected by a popular vote, was inaugurated.

OHILI, PERU, BOLIVIA.--The contest of Chili with Peru and Bolivia has attracted special notice. Chili, after the formation of its const.i.tution in 1833,--which resembles the const.i.tution of the United States,--enjoyed remarkable prosperity. The strife to which we refer began between Chili and Bolivia. The point in dispute was the right to the province of Atacama, between Chili and Peru, the southern part of which was claimed by Chili. Bolivia claimed the whole. By a treaty in 1866, the territory in dispute was to be, under certain conditions, common property. A rivalry existed between Chili and Peru, and a secret alliance was formed in 1873 between Peru and Bolivia. Bolivia now a.s.serted her t.i.tle to the entire province of Atacama. The Argentine Republic was disposed to take sides against Chili, but, in consequence of the success of the Chilians, remained neutral. The Chilians captured (Oct. 8, 1879) the Peruvian iron-clad vessel, the Huascar. They gained other advantages, and took possession of the whole province, with its deposits of nitrate and guano. Revolutions ensued in Bolivia and Peru. Chilians took _Lima_, the Peruvian capital, and overran the country. Terms of peace proposed by Chili, involving large cessions of territory, were ratified by the Congress at _Lima_ (March 1, 1884). A treaty of peace was made between Chili and Bolivia (May 4). In Jan., 1891, war broke out in Chili, resulting in the defeat of President _Balmaceda_ in August. An a.s.sault on American seamen by Chilians in Valparaiso, Oct., 1891, caused strained relations between Chili and the United States, the latter demanding apology and reparation. Chili complied, Jan., 1892.

CHINA AND j.a.pAN.

CHINA AND FOREIGN NATIONS: THE TAIPING REBELLION.--In the recent period, there has been a gradual but grudging and reluctant opening of _China_ to commercial intercourse with foreign nations, and to the labors of Christian missionaries. In 1840 there began the first war with Great Britain, called the "opium war" for the reason that it was caused by the Chinese prohibition of the importing of that article. In the treaty at the end of the war, five ports were made free to British trade; _Hong-Kong_ was ceded to England; and it was provided that the intercourse between the officials of the two nations should be on the basis of equality (1842). Two years later an advantageous treaty was concluded by the United States with China: a treaty was also concluded with France (1844). Aggressions of the Chinese led to a second war with Great Britain, in alliance with France (1857-60); in which the Chinese fleet was destroyed, and _Canton_, a city of a million inhabitants, was captured. Treaties were made, but the infraction of them was followed by the capture of _Peking_ (1859). In the settlement which immediately took place, toleration was granted to Christianity, and liberty to foreign amba.s.sadors to reside at the capital. In 1868 Mr. _Anson Burlingame_, who had been United States minister to China, with two Chinese envoys, visited the powers which had made treaties with China, and negotiated agreements by which important principles of international law were mutually adopted. The most important domestic event in China, in recent times, is the _"Taiping"-rebellion_, which broke out in 1850, in Southern China. Complaints of oppression and consequent disorder were brought to a climax on the accession of the young emperor, _Heen-fung_. The revolt spread from province to province, and found a leader in the person of _Hung Lew-tseuen_, who called himself _Teen-w.a.n.g_ (Celestial Virtue). He proclaimed his purpose to overthrow the _Manchu_ dynasty, and to restore the throne to the native Chinese. He claimed a divine commission, had caught up certain Christian ideas, and professed to be an adherent of Christianity. Mult.i.tudes flocked to his standard.

City after city fell into their hands. The war with England and France operated in his favor. After the conclusion of peace, the government was more energetic and successful in its effort to suppress the rebellion, and was helped by foreign officers, in particular by Major (afterwards General) _Gordon_. _Nanking_ was recaptured (1864); and the revolt, which had been attended with an enormous destruction of life, came to an end.

j.a.pAN AND FOREIGN NATIONS.--Up to the year 1866, the actual rulers of j.a.pan were the _Shogun_, or emperor's lieutenant, who resided at _Yedo_, and the _daimios_, or territorial n.o.bles, whose residence was also there. The _Mikado_, or emperor, lived in _Kioto_, surrounded by his relatives, the imperial n.o.bles. There was a strict cla.s.sification of the whole people, and a strict supervision of them, and the country was shut to foreigners. In 1853 Commodore _Perry_, of the United-States Navy, first entered the harbor of _Yedo_, and in 1854 returned, and negotiated a treaty with the _Shogun_, which opened certain ports to foreign trade, and to the admission of consuls. Treaties of a like nature between j.a.pan and the other princ.i.p.al nations were soon made. The _Mikado_ and his court were deeply incensed at the _Shogun's_ usurpation of authority, and were at the same time hostile to the introduction of foreigners. Thus a double contest arose. There was an attempt to put down the _Shogun_, and to strip him of his authority, and to drive off the strangers. This last effort led the _Mikado's_ officers to fire on the ships of the foreign nations. The punishment which these inflicted in the harbor of _Shimonoseki_ (1864) so impressed the emperor, in conjunction with his fear lest the foreigners should help the _Shogun_, that he completely reversed his policy, and proceeded to remove the barriers to intercourse with them. The _daimios_, who had been compelled to live at _Yedo_, flocked to _Kioto_. The _Mikado_, countenanced by the foreigners, overcame the resistance of the party of the Shoguns. He removed his residence to _Yedo_, now called _Tokio_ (1869). Feudalism was abolished (1871), and a const.i.tution promulgated in 1889. The empire was thus united and strengthened. Inst.i.tutions and customs of Western civilization were rapidly introduced. Political and legal reforms kept pace with the introduction of railroads and other material improvements. Christian missionaries actively engaged in preaching and teaching.

CHAPTER VII. THE LAST DECADE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

During the last decade of the nineteenth century tendencies which years before had begun to appear became the dominant feature of the European situation. The old ideals of the Manchester school--freer trade, more intimate and peaceful intercourse between nations, the right of each people to control its destiny, the development of liberal inst.i.tutions--gave way to a policy of high protective tariffs and bitter commercial warfare, of constant increase in armaments, of eager rivalry in seizing the territory of less civilized and weaker peoples, accompanied, particularly on the continent, by a decrease in the effectiveness of parliamentary government. Several of the great statesmen of the century yielded to new men. Although the close came without such wars as desolated Europe at the end of the eighteenth century, the heavy burdens which rested upon the taxpayer and the constant danger that the work of civilization would be rudely interrupted hardly justified the optimism of the earlier decades. The p.r.o.nunciamento of the Czar Nicholas in favor of restricting the growth of armaments and the consequent establishment, in 1900, of an international tribunal of arbitration at the Hague held out hopes of a better future.

ENGLAND.--An a.n.a.lysis of the majority which Gladstone had obtained in the general election of 1892 showed that the prospects of Home Rule for Ireland were slight. This majority was composed of an English minority supported by Scottish, Welsh, and Irish groups. The bill which was introduced in the following year differed from the previous bill in that it did not withdraw the Irish members from Westminster. Although the House of Commons gave it a small majority, it was defeated in the Lords. Gladstone felt that his support was too precarious to force the question to a final settlement by an appeal to the country. He accordingly turned his attention to the remainder of his programme, the most important part of which was a Parish Councils bill. This aimed to do for local government in the parishes what the previous Salisbury ministry had done for local government in the counties. After the success of the bill was a.s.sured Gladstone withdrew, and Lord Rosebery became prime-minister. Gladstone spent the remainder of his life in retirement. The Rosebery ministry soon fell, and a new Salisbury ministry dissolved Parliament. In the general election of 1895 the Conservatives and their allies, the Liberal-Unionists, received an overwhelming majority. This took the Home Rule question out of practical politics. Only through a series of minor concessions was the attempt to be made to satisfy Ireland's legitimate aspirations. This victory also showed that English public sentiment was ready to break definitely with the principles of Gladstone and his friends, and support a policy of energetic imperialism. The Queen, whose jubilee was again celebrated in 1897, died on January 22, 1901. The new king, Edward VII., at the age of sixty-one, was crowned in 1902.

GERMANY: BISMARCK's LATER POLICY.--Since 1878, when Bismarck abandoned his alliance with the National Liberals, he had been endeavoring to increase the financial strength of the empire by changing the customs and excise system, to conquer the socialists both by direct attack and by taking the working cla.s.ses under the special care of the state, and, more recently, to procure for Germany colonial possessions. Although his new financial policy was definitely protectionist, his chief aim was to free the imperial government from the need of applying to the different states for a subvention. In consequence of his policy, the income from customs and excises rose in ten years from 230,000,000 marks to 700,000,000. But the plan of state subventions although altered in fact was preserved in appearance, for Bismarck was obliged to concede to Particularist jealousies that all income from these sources above 130,000,000 must be paid to the states and the deficiency in the imperial treasury be made up in the usual manner. Later on the new naval programme again made state contributions a reality. In the laws to protect the workingmen Bismarck affirmed this to be the duty of the Christian state; he did not concede that such measures were simply the right of the workmen. The plan was carried out in three great laws: that of insurance in case of illness (1883), in case of accident in mines or factories (1884), and in case of old age or incapacity (1889).

These laws were enacted in the face of much outcry from employers, and were effectively administered. They did not, however, so far remove the grievances of the lower cla.s.ses as to check the growth of the Social Democratic party. Although the party has since 1891 embodied in its programme the theories of Marx, it is not wholly socialistic in character; it is also a protest of the democratic spirit against the administration of Germany as an aristocratic, military monarchy. In the face of repressive laws the party grew steadily, so that in 1890 it was able to cast 1,400,000 votes. The only force able to resist its advance was the Catholic Center, because the Catholic Church included among its members all cla.s.ses in the community; while the Protestant Church, in the cities at least, was more generally composed of the employing cla.s.s. From 1884 Bismarck had put Germany forward as an eager compet.i.tor for colonial acquisitions in Africa and the Pacific. The lands that Germany was able to obtain were hardly suited to distinctively German settlement, and afforded comparatively little advantage to trade.

BISMARCK'S FALL.--William II. began by continuing the policies which had been characteristic of the closing years of his grandfather's reign. It was not long before he became restive under the leadership of Bismarck. He desired to make his own personal aims more prominent. In 1890 there was a struggle over the renewal of the laws against the socialists and a consequent general election. The Emperor seized the opportunity to declare his purpose to improve still further the situation of the working cla.s.ses, and, with this in view, to call an international congress. In Prussia he declared it to be the duty of the state to regulate the conditions of labor. Such declarations took the control of the electoral campaign out of Bismarck's hands. One result was decided losses for the conservative groups. Bismarck tried to maintain his ascendency by insisting that, according to a cabinet order of Frederick William IV., the king of Prussia must communicate with the ministers through the president of the council. William retorted by denying Bismarck's right to negotiate with the chiefs of the parliamentary groups, and by requiring a decree reversing the obnoxious cabinet order. On March 20 he demanded Bismarck's resignation. Bismarck left Berlin amid a great ovation a few days later. For some years he and his friends formed an unofficial center of opposition and criticism. He died in July, 1898.

GERMANY SINCE BISMARCK'S FALL.--Bismarck's successors were Count Caprivi (1890-1894), Prince Hohenlobe (1894-1900), and Count Bulow. It was tacitly recognized that the anti-socialist laws had failed, and they were not renewed. The socialists as well as all other groups received the additional advantage that somewhat later a law was pa.s.sed permitting societies of all kinds to affiliate. It was estimated that in 1900 the Social Democrats controlled over 2,000,000 votes. The government vainly attempted to dike the rising flood by laws providing a practical censorship of art and of literature, but these had to be abandoned. In the parliamentary life of Germany the most significant change was the disintegration of the old parties, the strengthening of such groups as the Catholic Center and the Social Democrats, and the creation of a strong Agrarian party or interest. The Agrarians became prominent during the controversy over a commercial treaty with Russia. This treaty was part of a general attempt to develop the European market to make good the loss through the adoption of high tariffs in countries like America and France, and, at first, by Russia herself. Although Germany could not furnish enough grain to feed her own people, and there was a tariff on imported grain, the price kept falling, while the prices of manufactured articles steadily increased. The peasants and the landowners felt that they were threatened with ruin. Accordingly they formed an alliance in 1893, and a parliamentary union which, from that time on, was so formidable as to force important concessions from the government. Among other important measures of this period were the adoption of a new Civil Code for the empire, to go into effect Jan. 1, 1900; the reduction of the term of military service to two years; and the efforts by the successive naval programmes of 1897 and 1900 to create for Germany a strong sea power capable of supporting her trade and colonial aspirations.

FRANCE: BOULANGER.--In 1888 the continuance of the Republic was endangered by the support which many of its enemies and some of its ignorant friends lent to the pretensions of General Boulanger, who had made himself popular as minister of war by his army reforms and by his belligerent att.i.tude toward Germany. When he ceased to be minister, and particularly after he was deprived of his military command, he began an energetic propaganda for a revision of the const.i.tution, with the cry "Dissolution, Revision, Const.i.tuent." The royalists gave freely to further the campaign, hoping that moderate men would be frightened into calling the Count of Paris to the throne in order to save the country from another military empire. The Boulangists took skillful advantage of the fact that the deputies representing each department were elected "at large," and not on single district tickets, so that it was possible for Boulanger's name to be placed on each departmental ticket, and so in time to receive the votes of all France. With such a mandate it would be impossible for the moderate Republicans to resist him. For a time the scheme was successful. Boulanger was even elected on the Paris list. Had he been willing to undertake a coup d'etat he might then have overthrown the Republic, but he wished for a more peaceful triumph at the approaching general election. This his opponents deprived him of by abolishing the method of election "at large," so that each deputy was to represent a particular district. Boulanger was soon after attacked on a charge of treason before the Senate acting as a high court. He fled to Belgium and a little later committed suicide on the grave of his mistress.

PANAMA CRISIS.--Hardly had the danger from Boulanger subsided when, in 1892, many of the leading politicians were discredited by the disclosures made in the judicial investigation of the bankruptcy of the Panama Ca.n.a.l Company. It appeared that the company had spent large sums to muzzle the press, so that ignorant investors should not discover the precarious condition of the enterprise. It had also contributed to the campaign expenses of friendly deputies and directly purchased votes in order to obtain authority to negotiate a loan in a manner ordinarily illegal.