Out of Character Part 6

2. "Ages of Man," People, November 16, 1998.

3. "Tom Cruise," WestLord, http://www.westlord.com/tom-cruise-biography.

4. B. Svetkey, "The Crucible," Entertainment Weekly, December 20, 1996.

5. A. Bandura, Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control (New York: Freeman, 1997).

6. In case you were wondering, we had worried that the giving of praise might make people believe their performance was even better than they might think if they had received the good score alone. However, when we a.s.sessed people's judgments of how well they believed they did compared to others, receiving praise didn't improve their judgments of their performance. That is, people who received a score and praise judged their abilities to be the same as those who just received a score. Praise, however, functioned to mark the skill as socially important.

7. L. A. Williams and D. DeSteno, "Pride and Perseverance: The Motivational Role of Pride," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94 (2008): 100717.

8. Hardball, MSNBC, May 1, 2003.

9. Countdown with Keith Olbermann, MSNBC, May 1, 2003.

10. Face the Nation, CBS, May 4, 2003.

11. J. L. Tracy and D. Matsumoto, "The Spontaneous Expression of Pride and Shame: Evidence for Biologically Innate Nonverbal Displays," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (2008): 1165560.

12. A. F. Shariff and J. L. Tracy, "Knowing Who's Boss: Implicit Perceptions of Status from the Nonverbal Expression of Pride," Emotion 9 (2009): 63139.

13. L. A. Williams and D. DeSteno, "Pride: Adaptive Social Emotion or Seventh Sin?" Psychological Science 20 (2009): 28488.

14. P. A. Creed and J. Muller, "Psychological Distress in the Labour Market: Shame or Deprivation," Australian Journal of Psychology 58 (2006): 3139.

15. B. Carey, "When All You Have Left Is Your Pride," New York Times, April 7, 2009.

16. R. H. Gramzow and G. Willard, "Exaggerating Current and Past Performance: Motivated Self-Enhancement Versus Reconstructive Memory," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 32 (2006): 111425.

17. R. H. Gramzow, G. Willard, and W. B. Mendes, "Big Tales and Cool Heads: Academic Exaggeration Is Related to Cardiac Vagal Reactivity," Emotion 8 (2008): 13844.

5 / COMPa.s.sIONATE OR CRUEL?.

1. "Christmas 1914 and World War One," http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/christmas_1914_and_world_wa.htm.

2. F. B. M. de Waal, "Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy," Annual Review of Psychology 59 (2008): 279300.

3. R. L. Trivers, "The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism," Quarterly Review of Biology 46 (1971): 3557.

4. G. L. Murphy and D. L. Medin, "The Role of Theories in Conceptual Coherence," Psychological Review 92 (1985): 289316.

5. N. O. Rule and N. Ambady, "The Face of Success: Inferences from Chief Executive Officers' Appearance Predict Company Profits," Psychological Science, 19 (2008): 109111.

6. C. Y. Olivola and A. Todorov, "Elected in 100 Milliseconds: Appearance-Based Trait Inferences and Voting," Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 34 (2010): 83110; C. C. Ballew and A. Todorov, "Predicting Political Elections from Rapid and Unreflective Face Judgments," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (2007): 1794853.

7. U. Mueller and A. Mazur, "Facial Dominance of West Point Cadets as a Predictor of Later Rank," Social Forces 74 (1996).

8. J. N. Bailenson, S. Iyengar, N. Yee, and N. Collins, "Facial Similarity Between Voters and Candidates Causes Influence," Public Opinion Quarterly 72, 5 (2008): 93561.

9. Ibid.

10. P. Valdesolo and D. DeSteno, "Compa.s.sion, Altruism, and Minimal Group Affiliation" (2007), unpublished ma.n.u.script.

11. W. H. McNeill, Keeping Together in Time: Dance and Drill in Human History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995).

12. S. S. Wiltermuth and C. Heath, "Synchrony and Cooperation," Psychological Science 20 (2009): 15; M. J. Hove and J. L. Risen, "It's All in the Timing: Interpersonal Synchrony Increases Affiliation," Social Cognition 27 (2009): 94961.

13. P. Valdesolo and D. DeSteno, "Synchrony and the Social Tuning of Compa.s.sion," Emotion (forthcoming).

14. A. Waytz, N. Epley, and J. T. Cacioppo, "Social Cognition Unbound: Psychological Insights into Anthropomorphism and Dehumanization," Current Directions in Psychological Science 19 (2010): 5862.

15. Maurice Bridge, "Bystanders Ignore Plight of Burning Homeless Man," CanWest News Service, December 14, 2005, http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1540733/posts.

16. L. T. Harris and S. T. Fiske, "Dehumanizing the Lowest of the Low: Neuro-imaging Responses to Extreme Outgroups," Psychological Science 17 (2006): 84753.

17. C. N. DeWall and R. F. Baumeister, "Alone but Feeling No Pain: Effects of Social Exclusion on Physical Pain Tolerance and Pain Threshold, Affective Forecasting, and Interpersonal Empathy," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91 (2006): 115.

6 / FAIRNESS AND TRUST.

1. Evan Buxbaum, "Storeowner: A Little Compa.s.sion Changed Would-Be Robber's Life," CNN, December 3, 2009, http://www.cnn.com/2009/US/12/03/convenience.store.compa.s.sion/index.html.

2. Kieran Crowley, "Ex-Thug Repaid Deli Owner Who Helped Him," New York Post, December 3, 2009, http://www.nypost.com/p/news/local/he_kept_the_change_3mewgRcqMr311EPvag4sjL.

3. R. H. Frank, Pa.s.sions Within Reason: The Strategic Role of the Emotions (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988).

4. M. Y. Bartlett and D. DeSteno, "Grat.i.tude and Prosocial Behavior: Helping When It Costs You," Psychological Science 17 (2006): 31925.

5. Such helping of others to whom we don't owe anything can foster upstream reciprocity, which is a fancy word akin to "paying it forward." Research has shown that upstream reciprocity can underlie major growth in the levels of cooperation exhibited by members of societies. M. A. Nowak and S. Roch, "Upstream Reciprocity and the Evolution of Grat.i.tude," Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 274 (2007): 6059.

6. Steve Wulf and Tom Witkowski, "The Glow from a Fire," Time, January 8, 1996.

7. David Lamb, "Ethics, Loyalty Are Tightly Woven at Mill," Los Angeles Times, December 19, 1996, http://articles.latimes.com/1996-12-19/news/mn-10581_1_malden-mills.

8. D. DeSteno, M. Bartlett, J. Baumann, L. Williams, and L. d.i.c.kens, "Grat.i.tude as Moral Sentiment: Emotion-Guided Cooperation in Economic Exchange," Emotion 10 (2010): 28993.

9. S. B. Algoe, J. Haidt, and S. L. Gable, "Beyond Reciprocity: Grat.i.tude and Relationships in Everyday Life," Emotion 8 (2008): 42529.

10. N. M. Lambert, M. Clark, J. Durtschi, F. D. Fincham, and S. Graham, "Benefits of Expressing Grat.i.tude: Expressing Grat.i.tude to a Partner Changes the Expresser's View of the Relationship," Psychological Science 21 (2010): 57480.

11. Kathy Slobogin, "Survey: Many Students Say Cheating's OK," CNN, April 5, 2002, http://archives.cnn.com/2002/fyi/teachers.ednews/04/05/highschool.cheating.

12. F. Gino, S. Ayal, and D. Ariely, "Contagion and Differentiation in Unethical Behavior: The Effect of One Bad Apple on the Barrel," Psychological Science 20 (2009): 39398.

13. C.-B. Zhong, V. B. Lake, and F. Gino, "A Good Lamp Is the Best Police: Darkness Increases Dishonesty and Self-Interested Behavior," Psychological Science 21 (2010): 31114.

7 / PLAYING IT SAFE VS. TAKING A GAMBLE.

1. Alexandra Berzon, "The Gambler Who Blew $127 Million," Wall Street Journal, December 5, 2009, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB125996714714577317.html.

2. A. Tversky and D. Kahneman, "Availability: A Heuristic for Judging Frequency and Probability," Cognitive Psychology 5 (1973): 20732; B. Combs and P. Slovic, "Newspaper Coverage of Causes of Death," Journalism Quarterly 56 (1979): 83743.

3. P. H. Ditto, D. A. Pizarro, E. B. Epstein, J. A. Jacobson, and T. K. MacDonald, "Visceral Influences on Risk Taking Behavior," Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 19 (2006): 99113.

4. S. Gangestad and D. Buss, "Pathogen Prevalence and Human Mate Preferences," Ethology and Sociobiology 14 (1993): 8996.

5. D. Ariely and G. Loewenstein, "The Heat of the Moment: The Effect of s.e.xual Arousal on s.e.xual Decision Making," Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 19 (2006): 8798.

6. D. A. DeSteno, R. E. Petty, D. T. Wegener, and D. D. Rucker, "Beyond Valence in the Perception of Likelihood: The Role of Emotion Specificity," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78, 3 (2000): 397416.

7. C. M. Kuhnen and B. Knutson, "The Neural Basis of Financial Risk Taking," Neuron 47 (2005): 76370.

8. B. Dillon, Tormented Hope: Nine Hypochondriac Lives (Dublin: Penguin, 2009).

9. K. J. Arrow, "The Theory of Risk Aversion," in Aspects of the Theory of Risk-Bearing (Helsinki: Yrjo Jahnssonin Saatio, 1965). Reprinted in Essays in the Theory of Risk Bearing (Chicago: Markham Publ. Co., 1971), 90109.

10. A. A. Baird and J. A. Fugelsang, "The Emergence of Consequential Thought: Evidence from Neuroscience," in Law and the Brain, ed. S. Zeki and O. Goodenough (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 24558.

11. A. Bechara, H. Damasio, D. Tranel, and A. R. Damasio, "Deciding Advantageously Before Knowing the Advantageous Strategy," Science 275 (1997): 129395.

12. R. Thaler and C. Sunstein, Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth and Happiness (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009).

13. S. M. Banks, P. Salovey, S. Greener, A. J. Rothman, A. Moyer, J. Beauvais, et al., "The Effects of Message Framing on Mammography Utilization," Health Psychology 14 (1995): 17884.

14. D. T. Gilbert, E. C. Pinel, T. D. Wilson, S. J. Blumberg, and T. Wheatley, "Immune Neglect: A Source of Durability Bias in Affective Forecasting," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75 (1998): 61738.

8 / TOLERANCE VS. BIGOTRY.

1. Transcript taken from video released on Wikileaks. Time refers to minutes and seconds in the video clip. Full video and transcript can be found at http://www.collateralmurder.com.

2. J. Correll, B. Park, C. M. Judd, and B. Wittenbrink, "The Police Officer's Dilemma: Using Ethnicity to Disambiguate Potentially Threatening Individuals," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002): 131429.

3. Stephen G. Bloom, "Lessons of a Lifetime," Smithsonian, September 2005, http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/lesson_lifetime.html.

4. D. DeSteno, N. Dasgupta, M. Y. Bartlett, and A. Cajdric, "Prejudice from Thin Air: The Effect of Emotion on Automatic Intergroup Att.i.tudes," Psychological Science 15 (2004): 31924.

5. "Gibson's Anti-Semitic Tirade-Alleged Cover-up," TMZ, July 28, 2006, http://www.tmz.com/2006/07/28/gibsons-anti-semitic-tirade-alleged-cover-up.

6. Ed Pilkington, "Mel Gibson Faces Flak Again After Alleged Racist Rant," Guardian, July 2, 2010, http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2010/jul/02/mel-gibson-racist-rant.

7. Jessica Derschowitz, "Whoopi Goldberg Defends Mel Gibson on 'The View,' " CBS News, July 13, 2010, http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-31749_162-20010429-10391698.html.

8. In collaboration with Nilanjana Dasgupta, we've also conducted studies showing that anger can enhance existing biases. For example, when people are made to feel anger, their preexisting automatic biases toward groups such as Arabs become greater. N. Dasgupta, D. DeSteno, L. A. Williams, and M. Hunsinger, "Fanning the Flames: The Influence of Specific Incidental Emotions on Implicit Prejudice," Emotion 9 (2009): 58591.

9. A. R. Green, D. R. Carney, D. J. Pallin, L. H. Ngo, K. L. Raymond, L. Iezzoni, and M. Banaji, "The Presence of Implicit Bias in Physicians and Its Prediction of Thrombolysis Decisions for Black and White Patients," Journal of General Internal Medicine 22 (2007): 123138.

10. D. Rooth, "Implicit Discrimination in Hiring: Real World Evidence," IZA discussion paper no. 2764, Forschungsinst.i.tut zur Zukunft der Arbeit (Inst.i.tute for the Study of Labor), Bonn, April 2007, ftp://repec.iza.org/RePEc/Discussionpaper/dp2764.pdf.

11. M. I. Norton, S. R. Sommers, E. P. Apfelbaum, P. Nata.s.sia, and D. Ariely, "Color Blindness and Interracial Interaction: Playing the Political Correctness Game," Psychological Science 17 (2006): 94953.

9 / TRUE COLORS?.

1. M. A. Brackett, S. E. Rivers, M. R. Reyes, and P. Salovey, "Enhancing Academic Performance and Social and Emotional Competence with the RULER Feeling Words Curriculum," Learning and Individual Differences (in press).

2. S. E. Rivers, M. A. Brackett, and P. Salovey, "Measuring

Emotional Intelligence as a Mental Ability in Adults and Children," in The Sage Handbook of Personality Theory and a.s.sessment, ed. G. J. Boyle, G. Matthews, and D. H. Saklofske, 2:44060 (Los Angeles: Sage, 2008).

Guide to the Lab.

Much of the work that has been described in this book stems from the bright ideas and hard work of our many collaborators. We've made it a point to note each of them by name in the text where we've discussed the experiments of which they were a part, because it is a fact certain that each of their contributions was central to the success of the work. Still, we'd like to single out a few individuals for extra note. Over the past decade, Dave's lab at Northeastern has become a national focal point for the study of how emotions guide social behavior. The result of this fact (and in many ways the reason for it in the first place) is that we've had the extraordinary good fortune to be able to work day in and day out with people who are not only incredibly smart and creative but also some of the warmest and most fun people on the planet. For this we count ourselves blessed. So we think it's only fair to acknowledge present and former members of the lab (in alphabetical order).

MONICA BARTLETT, who took the lead on much of the work on grat.i.tude, is now an a.s.sistant professor at Gonzaga University in Spokane, Washington. Besides being a top-notch scholar on the benefits of positive emotions, Monica is renowned at Gonzaga for her teaching. So if you're ever pa.s.sing through Spokane, stop in to catch one of her lectures.

JOLIE BAUMANN contributed to some of the work on grat.i.tude we discussed. She is currently a senior graduate student in Dave's lab working in two areas: the effects of emotion on perception and the dynamics of trust. As part of her work on trust, Jolie has teamed with Dave and the MIT Personal Robots Group to give voice to the robot Nexi, which, in collaboration with its creator, Cynthia Breazeal, they are using to study how people decide if they can trust a stranger.

JULIA BRAVERMAN was Dave's first grad student, who, like all first grad students, helped build the embryonic lab from scratch. After leaving Northeastern with a Ph.D. in psychology, she went on to Harvard to get a master's degree in biomedical informatics. Today she's an instructor at Harvard Medical School doing great work on health communication strategies designed to increase public health.

PAUL CONDON is a new arrival in Dave's lab. Even though Paul hasn't yet had an opportunity to contribute to any of the work we described, as he's been here only a few months, he has had to put up with Dave saying, "I can't meet now, I'm writing a book." For that alone, he deserves an acknowledgment, but, industrious and creative as he is, he's already conducting cutting-edge experiments on the causes and consequences of human compa.s.sion.

LEAH d.i.c.kENS contributed to some of the work on grat.i.tude we discussed. Leah, who will be joining the lab in 2011 as a new grad student, was the lab manager and Dave's research a.s.sistant in 200910. As such, she also spent many hours on the Internet and in the library hunting down facts and articles for this book. Her intelligence and sheer dedication were amazing a.s.sets to this project.

LISA WILLIAMS, who was the guiding force behind much of the work on pride, is now a lecturer at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia. Lisa, who is originally from Hawaii, put in many long hours in the cold Boston winters, so we're happy she's living in Sydney with a view of Coogee Beach from her apartment. Lisa continues to do some of the most groundbreaking work around on the social aspects of pride (and manages to show up in Boston during the winter now and again with a tan).

About the Authors.

DAVID DESTENO is an a.s.sociate professor of psychology at Northeastern University, where he is also director of the Social Emotions Lab. He is editor of the American Psychological a.s.sociation's journal Emotion and has served as a visiting a.s.sociate professor of psychology at Harvard University. His work has been featured in the New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Washington Post, Boston Globe, Scientific American, and on ABC News and NPR. He has also guest-blogged for the New York Times Freakonomics blog.

PIERCARLO VALDESOLO is an a.s.sistant professor of psychology at Claremont McKenna College. His work has appeared in top journals and major news outlets, including the New York Times, Washington Post, Boston Globe, LA Times, and Newsweek, and he has been awarded fellowships at Harvard University and Amherst College. He is a contributor to the Scientific American Mind Matters blog.