Meaning Of Tingo Part 7

Whatever the Weather

chuntian hai'er lian, yi tianbian san bian (Chinese)spring weather is like a child's face, changingthree times a day

And the forecast is...

Despite our obsession with the weather, the English language doesn't cover all the bases when it comes to precise observations of the natural world...

serein (French) fine rain falling from a cloudless sky (French) fine rain falling from a cloudless skyimbat (Turkish) a daytime summer sea breeze (Turkish) a daytime summer sea breeze'inapoiri (Cook Islands Maori) a moonless night (Cook Islands Maori) a moonless nightwamadat (Persian) the intense heat of a still, sultry night (Persian) the intense heat of a still, sultry nightgumusservi (Turkish) moonlight shining on water (Turkish) moonlight shining on watertojji (Tulu, India) the sc.u.m of water collected into bubbles (Tulu, India) the sc.u.m of water collected into bubblesefterarsfarver (Danish) autumn colours (Danish) autumn colours ... though, inevitably, there are some local phenomena that we have to struggle harder to imagine:

wilikoi (Hawaiian) substances that are gathered up in the centre of a whirlwind (Hawaiian) substances that are gathered up in the centre of a whirlwindisblink (Swedish) the luminous appearance of the horizon caused by reflection from ice (Swedish) the luminous appearance of the horizon caused by reflection from ice

Meteorological metaphors Our descriptions of the weather often use metaphors, such as raining cats and dogs, but some languages use the weather itself as the metaphor: Schnee von gestern (German) yesterday's snow (water under the bridge) (German) yesterday's snow (water under the bridge)huutaa tuuleen (Finnish) to shout to the wind (to do something that has no use) (Finnish) to shout to the wind (to do something that has no use)aven solen har flackar (Swedish) even the sun has got spots (no one is perfect) (Swedish) even the sun has got spots (no one is perfect)snest nkomu modre z nebe (Czech) to bring the blue down from the sky for someone (do anything to please them) (Czech) to bring the blue down from the sky for someone (do anything to please them)chap phar kah chap jil pa chu kha ray (Dzongkha, Bhutan) the rain falls yonder, but the drops strike here (indirect remarks. .h.i.t the target) (Dzongkha, Bhutan) the rain falls yonder, but the drops strike here (indirect remarks. .h.i.t the target)xihuitl barq (Arabic) lightning without a downpour (a disappointment, a disillusionment or an unkept promise) (Arabic) lightning without a downpour (a disappointment, a disillusionment or an unkept promise)

Those words for snow The number of different Inuit words for snow has been the subject of endless debate, few people taking into account the fact that the now-offensive group name 'Eskimo' (from the French Esquimaux Esquimaux, derived from North American Algonquian and literally meaning 'eaters of raw flesh') covers a number of different language areas: Inuit in Greenland and Canada, Yupik in Eastern Siberia and Aleut in Alaska. Here is a selection of words for snow from some Inuit languages: snow, kaniktshaq kaniktshaq; no snow, aputaitok aputaitok; to snow, qanir qanir, qanunge, qanugglir qanunge, qanugglir; snowy weather, nittaatsuq, qannirsuq nittaatsuq, qannirsuq; to get fine snow or rain particles, kanevcir kanevcir; first falling, apingaut apingaut; light falling, qannialaag qannialaag; wet and falling, natatgo natatgo naq naq; in the air, falling, qaniit qaniit; feathery clumps of falling snow, qanipalaat qanipalaat; air thick with snow, nittaalaq nittaalaq; rippled surface of snow, kaiyuglak kaiyuglak; light, deep enough for walking, katik-sugnik katik-sugnik; fresh without any ice, kanut kanut; crusty, sillik sillik; soft for travelling, mauyasiorpok mauyasiorpok; soft and deep where snowshoes are needed for travel, taiga taiga; powder, nutagak nutagak; salty, pokaktok pokaktok; wind-beaten, upsik upsik; fresh, nutaryuk nutaryuk; packed, aniu aniu; sharp, panar panar; crusty that breaks under foot, karakartanaq karakartanaq; rotten, slush on sea, qinuq qinuq; best for building an igloo, pukaangajuq pukaangajuq; glazed in a thaw, kiksrukak kiksrukak; watery, mangokpok mangokpok; firm (the easiest to cut, the warmest, the preferred), pukajaw pukajaw; loose, newly fallen which cannot be used as it is, but can provide good building material when compacted, ariloqaq ariloqaq; for melting into water, aniuk aniuk; that a dog eats, aniusarpok aniusarpok; that can be broken through, mauya mauya; floating on water, qanisqineq qanisqineq; for building, auverk auverk; on clothes, ayak ayak; beaten from clothes, tiluktorpok tiluktorpok; much on clothes, aputainnarowok aputainnarowok; crust, pukak pukak; cornice, formation about to collapse, navcaq navcaq; on the boughs of trees, qali qali; blown indoors, sullarniq sullarniq; snowdrift overhead and about to fall, mavsa mavsa; snowdrift that blocks something, kimaugruk kimaugruk; smoky drifting snow, siqoq siqoq; arrow-shaped snowdrift, kalutoganiq kalutoganiq; newly drifting snow, akelrorak akelrorak; s.p.a.ce between drifts and obstruction, anamana anamana, anymanya anymanya; snowstorm, pirsuq pirsuq, pirsirsursuaq, qux pirsirsursuaq, qux; violent snowstorm, igadug igadug; blizzard, pirta, pirtuk pirta, pirtuk; avalanche, sisuuk, aput sisurtuq sisuuk, aput sisurtuq; to get caught in an avalanche, navcite navcite.

There are also a large number of Inuit words for ice, covering everything from icicles through 'solidly frozen slush' to 'open pack ice in seawater'.

False friends air (Indonesian) water, liquid, juice (Indonesian) water, liquid, juiceblubber (Dutch) mud (Dutch) muds.h.i.t (Persian) dust (Persian) dustnap (Hungarian) sun (Hungarian) sunsky (Norwegian) cloud (Norwegian) cloudpi (Korean) rain (Korean) rain

Highland mist Either there is more weather in the cold, wet places of the world or people have more time to think about and define it. The Scots may not have as many words for snow as the Inuits, but they have a rich vocabulary for their generally cool and damp climate.

Dreich is their highly evocative word for a miserably wet day. Gentle rain or is their highly evocative word for a miserably wet day. Gentle rain or smirr smirr might be falling, either in a might be falling, either in a dribble dribble (drizzle) or in a (drizzle) or in a dreep dreep (steady but light rainfall). (steady but light rainfall). Plowtery Plowtery (showery) weather may shift to a (showery) weather may shift to a gandiegow gandiegow (squall), a (squall), a pish-oot pish-oot (complete downpour), or a (complete downpour), or a thunder-plump thunder-plump (sudden rainstorm accompanied by thunder and lightning). Any of these is likely to make the average walker feel (sudden rainstorm accompanied by thunder and lightning). Any of these is likely to make the average walker feel dowie dowie (downhearted) as they push on through the (downhearted) as they push on through the slaister slaister (liquid bog) and (liquid bog) and glaur glaur (mire), even if they're not yet (mire), even if they're not yet drookit drookit (soaked to the skin). The track in front of them will probably be covered with (soaked to the skin). The track in front of them will probably be covered with dubs dubs (puddles), as the neighbouring (puddles), as the neighbouring burn burn (stream) grows into a fast-flowing (stream) grows into a fast-flowing linn linn (torrent). (torrent).

The very next day the weather may be different again, and the walker beset by blenter blenter (gusty wind). Or if it's (gusty wind). Or if it's grulie grulie (unsettled), there's always the hope that it might turn out (unsettled), there's always the hope that it might turn out leesome leesome (fair) with a lovely (fair) with a lovely pirl pirl (soft breeze). And then, after the next (soft breeze). And then, after the next plype plype (sudden heavy shower), there may even be a (sudden heavy shower), there may even be a watergow watergow (faint rainbow). In deepest winter it will generally be (faint rainbow). In deepest winter it will generally be snell snell (piercingly cold), and sometimes (piercingly cold), and sometimes fair fair jeelit jeelit (icily so) among the (icily so) among the wreaths wreaths (drifts) of snow. (drifts) of snow.

For a precious few fair days in summer, there may even be a simmer cowt simmer cowt (heat haze), though the more austere will be relieved that the likelihood of discomfort remains high on account of the fierce-biting (heat haze), though the more austere will be relieved that the likelihood of discomfort remains high on account of the fierce-biting mudges mudges (midges). (midges).

On reflection

My underground oven Riddles are found the world over. Here are some intriguing ones from Hawaii: 1. 1 ku'u punawai kau i ka lewa my spring of water high up in the clouds my spring of water high up in the clouds

1. 2 ku'u wahi pu ko'ula i ka moana my bundle of red sugarcane in the ocean my bundle of red sugarcane in the ocean 2. 3 ku'u wahi hale, 'ewalu o'a, ho'okahi pou my house with eight rafters and one post my house with eight rafters and one post 3. 4 ku'u imu kalua loa a lo'ik'i my long underground oven my long underground oven Answers 1. 1 niu niu a coconut a coconut 2. 2 anuenue anuenue a rainbow a rainbow 3. 3 mamula mamula an umbrella an umbrella 4. 4 he he the grave the grave

Hearing Things

quien quiere ruido, compre uncochino (Spanish) (Spanish)he that loves noise must buy a pig

Sound bites The sounds of most of the words we use have little to do with their meanings. But there are exceptions in other languages, too. For best results try saying the words out loud: ata-ata (Rapa Nui, Easter Island) to laugh (Rapa Nui, Easter Island) to laughba'a (Hausa, Nigeria) ridicule, mockery (Hausa, Nigeria) ridicule, mockerybaqbaq (Arabic) garrulous (Arabic) garrulousbulubushile (Bemba, Congo and Zambia) a stammer or lisp (Bemba, Congo and Zambia) a stammer or lispcapcap (Maltese) to clap (Maltese) to clapchopchop (Chamorro, Guam, USA) to suck (Chamorro, Guam, USA) to suckcizir cizir (Turkish) with a sizzling noise (Turkish) with a sizzling noisekarkara (Arabic) to rumble (of a stomach) (Arabic) to rumble (of a stomach)kekek-kekek (Malay) to giggle (Malay) to gigglekitikiti (Tulu, India) the ticking of a watch; or giggling, t.i.ttering (Tulu, India) the ticking of a watch; or giggling, t.i.tteringpes pes (Pashto, Afghanistan and Pakistan) whispering (Pashto, Afghanistan and Pakistan) whisperingpshurr (Albanian) to urinate, to wet one's clothes (Albanian) to urinate, to wet one's clothesraxxax (Maltese) to drizzle (Maltese) to drizzleringongo (Gilbertese, Kiribati) to snore (Gilbertese, Kiribati) to snoretaptap (Maltese) to patter (Maltese) to patteryuyurungul (Yindiny, Australia) the noise of a snake sliding through the gra.s.s (Yindiny, Australia) the noise of a snake sliding through the gra.s.sxiaoxiao (Chinese) the whistling and pattering of rain or wind (Chinese) the whistling and pattering of rain or windzonk zonk (Turkish) to throb terribly (Turkish) to throb terribly

Making a splash Local experience shapes local language. The Tulu people of India, for example, have a fine array of evocative, specific words to do with water: gulum gulum describes a stone falling into a well; describes a stone falling into a well; gulugulu gulugulu is filling a pitcher with water; is filling a pitcher with water; caracara caracara is spurting water from a pump; is spurting water from a pump; budubudu budubudu is bubbling, gushing water; is bubbling, gushing water; jalabala jalabala is bubbling or boiling water; is bubbling or boiling water; salasala salasala is pouring water; while is pouring water; while calacala calacala describes the action of children wading through water as they play. describes the action of children wading through water as they play.

Ding dong The sound of an altogether noisier culture can be heard in Indonesian: kring kring is the sound of a bicycle bell; is the sound of a bicycle bell; dentang dentang, cans being hit repeatedly; reat-reot reat-reot, the squeaking of a door; ning-nong ning-nong, the ringing of a doorbell; jedar-jedor jedar-jedor, a door banging repeatedly. But there are gentler moments, too: kec.i.p.ak-kecipung kec.i.p.ak-kecipung is hands splashing water in a rhythm, while is hands splashing water in a rhythm, while desus desus is a quiet and smooth sound as of someone farting but not very loudly. is a quiet and smooth sound as of someone farting but not very loudly.

Chirping cuckoos The Basques of the Pyrenees also use highly expressive words. You might recognize such terms as kuku kuku (a cuckoo), (a cuckoo), miau miau (miaou), (miaou), mu mu(moo), durrunda durrunda (thunder), (thunder), zurrumurru zurrumurru (a whisper) and (a whisper) and urtzintz urtzintz (to sneeze), but could you guess the meaning of these? (to sneeze), but could you guess the meaning of these?

thu to spit milikatu to lick tchiuka to chirp chichtu to whistle uhurritu to howl chehatu to chew karruskatu to gnaw

False friends rang (Chinese) to yell, shout (Chinese) to yell, shoutboo (Latin) to cry out, resound (Latin) to cry out, resoundhum (Ainu, j.a.pan) sound, feeling (Ainu, j.a.pan) sound, feelingrumore (Italian) noise (Italian) noiseb.u.m (Turkish) bang (Turkish) bang

Sounds j.a.panese The j.a.panese can be equally imitative: shikushiku shikushiku is to cry continuously while sniffling, and is to cry continuously while sniffling, and zeizei zeizei is the sound of air being forced through the windpipe when one has a cold or respiratory illness. We can hear perhaps a gathering of j.a.panese women in is the sound of air being forced through the windpipe when one has a cold or respiratory illness. We can hear perhaps a gathering of j.a.panese women in kusukusu kusukusu, to giggle or t.i.tter, especially in a suppressed voice; and of men in geragera geragera, a belly laugh. Moving from the literal to the more imaginative, the j.a.panese have sa sa, the sound of a machine with the switch on, idling quietly; sooay sooay sooay sooay, fish swimming; susu susu, the sound of air pa.s.sing continuously through a small opening.

Gitaigo describes a more particular j.a.panese concept: words that try to imitate not just sounds, but states of feeling. So describes a more particular j.a.panese concept: words that try to imitate not just sounds, but states of feeling. So gatcha gatcha gatcha gatcha describes an annoying noise; describes an annoying noise; harahara harahara refers to one's reaction to something one is directly involved in; and refers to one's reaction to something one is directly involved in; and ichaicha ichaicha is used of a couple engaging in a public display of affection viewed as unsavoury by pa.s.sers-by. Mimicry of feelings extends to descriptions of the way we see: so is used of a couple engaging in a public display of affection viewed as unsavoury by pa.s.sers-by. Mimicry of feelings extends to descriptions of the way we see: so jirojiro jirojiro is to stare in fascination; is to stare in fascination; tekateka tekateka is the shiny appearance of a smooth (often cheap-looking) surface; is the shiny appearance of a smooth (often cheap-looking) surface; pichapicha pichapicha is splashing water; and is splashing water; and kirakira kirakira is a small light that blinks repeatedly. is a small light that blinks repeatedly.

Sounds familiar Not all words about sound are imitative; or perhaps it's just that things strike the ear differently in other parts of the world: bagabaga (Tulu, India) the crackling of a fire (Tulu, India) the crackling of a firedesir (Malay) the sound of sand driven by the wind (Malay) the sound of sand driven by the windfaamiti (Samoan) to make a squeaking sound by sucking air past the lips in order to gain the attention of a dog or children (Samoan) to make a squeaking sound by sucking air past the lips in order to gain the attention of a dog or childrenriman (Arabic) the sound of a stone thrown at a boy (Arabic) the sound of a stone thrown at a boyghiqq (Persian) the sound made by a boiling kettle (Persian) the sound made by a boiling kettlekertek (Malay) the sound of dry leaves or twigs being trodden underfoot (Malay) the sound of dry leaves or twigs being trodden underfootlushindo (Bemba, Congo and Zambia) the sound of footsteps (Bemba, Congo and Zambia) the sound of footstepsnyangi (Yindiny, Australia) any annoying noise (Yindiny, Australia) any annoying noiseyuyin (Chinese) the remnants of sound which remain in the ears of the hearer (Chinese) the remnants of sound which remain in the ears of the hearerOn reflection

Top ten In terms of numbers of speakers, the top ten world languages are as follows: 1. 1 Mandarin 1,000+ million 2. 2 English 508 million 3. 3 Hindi 497 million 4. 4 Spanish 342 million 5. 5 Russian 277 million 6. 6 Arabic 246 million 7. 7 Bengali 211 million 8. 8 Portuguese 191 million 9. 9 Malay-Indonesian 159 million 10. 10 French 129 million

Seeing Things

cattiva e quella lana che non sipuo tingere (Italian) (Italian)it is a bad cloth that will take no colour

Colourful language We might well think that every language has a word for every colour, but this isn't so. Nine languages distinguish only between black and white. In Dan, for example, which is spoken in New Guinea, people talk in terms of things being either mili mili (darkish) or (darkish) or mola mola (lightish). (lightish).

Twenty-one languages have distinct words for black, red and white only; eight have those colours plus green; then the sequence in which additional colours are brought into languages is yellow, with a further eighteen languages, then blue (with six) and finally brown (with seven).

Across the spectrum As with colours, so with the rainbow. The Ba.s.sa language of Liberia identifies only two colours: ziza ziza (red/orange/yellow) and (red/orange/yellow) and hui hui (green/ blue/purple) in their spectrum. The Shona of Zimbabwe describe four: (green/ blue/purple) in their spectrum. The Shona of Zimbabwe describe four: cipsuka cipsuka (red/orange), (red/orange), cicena cicena (yellow and yellow-green), (yellow and yellow-green), citema citema (green-blue) and (green-blue) and cipsuka cipsuka again (the word also represents the purple end of the spectrum). It is just Europeans and the j.a.panese who pick out seven colours: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. again (the word also represents the purple end of the spectrum). It is just Europeans and the j.a.panese who pick out seven colours: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

Welsh blues The Welsh for blue is glas glas, as in the expression yng nglas y dydd yng nglas y dydd, in the blue of the day (the early morning). But glas glas is a hard-working word. It's also used in the expression is a hard-working word. It's also used in the expression gorau glas gorau glas (blue best), to mean to do one's best, and, changing tack rather dramatically, it appears as (blue best), to mean to do one's best, and, changing tack rather dramatically, it appears as glas wen glas wen (blue smile), a smile that is insincere and mocking. In Welsh literature, (blue smile), a smile that is insincere and mocking. In Welsh literature, glas glas is a colour that is somewhere between green, blue and grey; it also has poetic meanings of both youth and death. is a colour that is somewhere between green, blue and grey; it also has poetic meanings of both youth and death.

False friends blank (German) shiny (German) shinyh.e.l.l (German) clear, bright, light (German) clear, bright, lightcafe (Quechuan, Peru) brown (Quechuan, Peru) brown

Thai dress code Thais believe that if they dress in a certain colour each day it will bring them good luck. The code is: Monday, yellow (lueang); Tuesday, pink (chom poo); Wednesday, green (kiaw); Thursday, orange (som); Friday, blue (nam ngem); Sat.u.r.day, purple (muang); Sunday, red (daeng). Black (dam) is not lucky for conservative people and is reserved for funerals; unless you are young, in which case it's seen as edgy and sophisticated.

Colour-coded We can be green with envy, see red, or feel a bit blue. Colours have a strong symbolic force, but not everyone agrees on what they stand for: Redmakka na uso (j.a.panese) a deep red (outright) lie (j.a.panese) a deep red (outright) lieaka no tannin (j.a.panese) a red (total) stranger (j.a.panese) a red (total) strangerfilm a luci rosse (Italian) a red (blue) film (Italian) a red (blue) filmromanzo rosa (Italian) a pink (romantic) story (Italian) a pink (romantic) storyvyspat se do ervena/ruova (Czech) to sleep oneself into the red (have had a good night's sleep) (Czech) to sleep oneself into the red (have had a good night's sleep)Yellowjaune d'envie (French) yellow (green) with envy (French) yellow (green) with envygelb vor Eifersucht werden (German) to become yellow with jealousy (German) to become yellow with jealousykiroi koi (j.a.panese) a yellow (particularly screeching) scream (j.a.panese) a yellow (particularly screeching) screamgul och bl (Swedish) yellow and blue (black and blue) (Swedish) yellow and blue (black and blue)Blacksvartsjuk (Swedish) black ill (jealousy) (Swedish) black ill (jealousy)hara guroi (j.a.panese) black stomach (wicked) (j.a.panese) black stomach (wicked)etre noir (French) to be black (drunk) (French) to be black (drunk)mustasukkainen (Finnish) wearing black socks (jealous) (Finnish) wearing black socks (jealous)Whiteandare in bianco (Italian) to go into the white (to have no success with someone romantically) (Italian) to go into the white (to have no success with someone romantically)ak akce kara gun icindir (Turkish) white money for a black day (savings for a rainy day) (Turkish) white money for a black day (savings for a rainy day)un mariage blanc (French) a white marriage (a marriage of convenience) (French) a white marriage (a marriage of convenience)obleci bil kabat (archaic Czech) to put on the white coat (to join the army) (archaic Czech) to put on the white coat (to join the army)Blueaoiki toiki (j.a.panese) sighing with blue breath (suffering) (j.a.panese) sighing with blue breath (suffering)blau sein (German) to be blue (drunk) (German) to be blue (drunk)en etre bleu (French) to be in the blue (struck dumb) (French) to be in the blue (struck dumb)aoku naru (j.a.panese) blue with fright (j.a.panese) blue with frightbltt oga (Swedish) blue eye (black eye) (Swedish) blue eye (black eye)modre pondli (Czech) blue Monday (a Monday taken as holiday after the weekend) (Czech) blue Monday (a Monday taken as holiday after the weekend)Greenal verde (Italian) in the green (short of cash) (Italian) in the green (short of cash)vara pa gron kvist (Swedish) as rich as green (wealthy) (Swedish) as rich as green (wealthy)langue verte (French) green language (slang) (French) green language (slang)da.r.s.e un verde (Spanish) to give oneself greens (to tuck into one's food) (Spanish) to give oneself greens (to tuck into one's food)aotagai (j.a.panese) to buy green rice fields (to employ college students prematurely) (j.a.panese) to buy green rice fields (to employ college students prematurely)On reflection

Polyglossary Two countries, Papua New Guinea with over 850 languages and Indonesia with around 670, are home to a quarter of the world's languages. If we add the seven countries that each possess more than two hundred languages (Nigeria 410, India 380, Cameroon 270, Australia 250, Mexico 240, Zaire 210, Brazil 210), the total comes to almost 3,500; which is to say that more than half of the world's spoken languages come from just nine countries.If we look at it in terms of continents, North, Central and South America have around one thousand spoken languages, which is about 15 per cent; Africa has around 30 per cent; Asia a bit over 30 per cent; and the Pacific somewhat under 20 per cent. Europe is by far the least diverse, having only 3 per cent of the world's languages.

Number Crunching

c'est la goutted'eau qui fait deborder le vase (French)it's the drop of water that makes the vase overflow

Countdown You might expect words to get longer as numbers get bigger, so perhaps it's a surprise to find that in some languages the words for single digits are a real mouthful. In the Ona-Shelknam language of the Andes, for example, eight is ningayuneng aRvinelegh ningayuneng aRvinelegh. And in Athabaskan Koyukon (an Alaskan language) you need to get right through neelk'etoak'eek'eelek'eebedee'oane neelk'etoak'eek'eelek'eebedee'oane to register the number seven. to register the number seven.

Vital statistics The world's vocabulary of numbers moves from the precise...

parab (a.s.syrian, Middle East) five-sixths (a.s.syrian, Middle East) five-sixthshalvfemte (Danish) four and a half (Danish) four and a halflakh (Hindustani) one hundred thousand (Hindustani) one hundred thousand ... to the vague: tobaiti (Machiguengan, Peru) any quant.i.ty above four (Machiguengan, Peru) any quant.i.ty above fourmpusho (Bemba, Congo and Zambia) any unit greater than the number ten (Bemba, Congo and Zambia) any unit greater than the number tenbirkacinci (Turkish) umpteen (Turkish) umpteen

Counting in old China From the very biggest to the very smallest, the Ancient Chinese were highly specific in their delineation of numbers, from: tsai 100 trillion 100 trillioncheng 10 trillion 10 trillionchien a trillion a trillionkou 100 billion 100 billionjang 10 billion 10 billionpu / tzu a billion a billionkai 100 million 100 millionching 10 million 10 million right down to: ch'ien one tenth one tenthfen one hundredth one hundredthli one thousandth one thousandthhao one ten-thousandth one ten-thousandthssu one hundred-thousandth one hundred-thousandthhu one millionth one millionthwei one ten-millionth one ten-millionthhsien one hundred-millionth one hundred-millionthsha one billionth one billionthch'en one ten-billionth one ten-billionth

Double-digit growth Counting in multiples of ten probably came from people totting up items on their outspread fingers and thumbs. Some cultures, however, have approached matters rather differently. The Ancient Greeks rounded things off to sixty (for their low numbers) and 360 (for their high numbers) and speakers of old Germanic used to say 120 to mean many. The Yuki of Northern California counted in multiples of eight (being the s.p.a.ce between their two sets of fingers) and rounded off high numbers at sixty-four. Some Indian tribes in California based their multiples on five and ten; others liked four as it expressed North, South, East and West; others six because it added to those directions the worlds above and below ground.

Magic numbers Different cultures give different significance to different numbers. Western traditions offer the five senses and the seven sins, among other groupings. Elsewhere we find very different combinations. The following list is drawn from the Tulu language of India unless otherwise stated: Threetribhuvara the three worlds: heaven, earth and h.e.l.l the three worlds: heaven, earth and h.e.l.ltrivarga the three human objects: love, duty and wealth the three human objects: love, duty and wealthFournalvarti the four seasons the four seasonsFivepancabhuta the five elements: earth, air, fire, water and ether the five elements: earth, air, fire, water and etherpancaloha the five chief metals: gold, silver, copper, iron and lead the five chief metals: gold, silver, copper, iron and leadpancavarna the five colours: white, black, red, yellow and the five colours: white, black, red, yellow andgreenpancamahapataka the five greatest sins: murdering a Brahman, stealing gold, drinking alcohol, seducing the wife of one's spiritual mentor, and a.s.sociating with a person who has committed such sins the five greatest sins: murdering a Brahman, stealing gold, drinking alcohol, seducing the wife of one's spiritual mentor, and a.s.sociating with a person who has committed such sinspancavadya the five princ.i.p.al musical instruments: lute, cymbals, drum, trumpet and oboe the five princ.i.p.al musical instruments: lute, cymbals, drum, trumpet and oboeSixliuqin (Chinese) the six relations (father, mother, elder brothers, younger brothers, wife and children) (Chinese) the six relations (father, mother, elder brothers, younger brothers, wife and children)Sevenhaft rang (Persian) the seven colours of the heavenly bodies: Saturn, black; Jupiter, brown; Mars, red; the Sun, yellow; Venus, white; Mercury, blue; and the Moon, green (Persian) the seven colours of the heavenly bodies: Saturn, black; Jupiter, brown; Mars, red; the Sun, yellow; Venus, white; Mercury, blue; and the Moon, greenEightashtabhoga the eight sources of enjoyment: habitation, bed, clothing, jewels, wife, flower, perfumes and betel-leaf/areca nut the eight sources of enjoyment: habitation, bed, clothing, jewels, wife, flower, perfumes and betel-leaf/areca nutNinesembako (Indonesian) the nine basic commodities that people need for everyday living: rice, flour, eggs, sugar, salt, cooking oil, kerosene, dried fish and basic textiles (Indonesian) the nine basic commodities that people need for everyday living: rice, flour, eggs, sugar, salt, cooking oil, kerosene, dried fish and basic textilesTendah ak (Persian) the ten vices named after the tyrant Zahhak who was notorious for ten defects of body or mind: ugliness, shortness of stature, excessive pride, indecency, gluttony, scurrility, cruelty, hastiness, falsehood and cowardice (Persian) the ten vices named after the tyrant Zahhak who was notorious for ten defects of body or mind: ugliness, shortness of stature, excessive pride, indecency, gluttony, scurrility, cruelty, hastiness, falsehood and cowardice

Expressed numerically Specific numbers are also used in some colloquial phrases: mettre des queues aux zeros (French) to add tails to noughts (to overcharge) (French) to add tails to noughts (to overcharge)siete (Spanish, Central America) seven (a right-angled tear) (Spanish, Central America) seven (a right-angled tear)Mein Rad hat eine Acht (German) my bike has an eight (a buckled wheel) (German) my bike has an eight (a buckled wheel)se mettre sur son trente et un (French) to put yourself on your thirty-one (to get all dressed up) (French) to put yourself on your thirty-one (to get all dressed up)ein Gesicht wie 7 Tage Regenwetter haben (German) to have a face like seven days of rain (a long face) (German) to have a face like seven days of rain (a long face)

Kissin time The adult understanding of the French number soixante-neuf soixante-neuf (69) is well known. Less familiar is the other meaning of (69) is well known. Less familiar is the other meaning of quatrevingt-huit quatrevingt-huit (88) a kiss. (88) a kiss.