Letters on Astronomy Part 2

[Ill.u.s.tration Fig. 4.]

Let us first see how the image is formed. This may be done either by a convex lens, or by a concave mirror. A convex lens is a flat piece of gla.s.s, having its two faces convex, or spherical, as is seen in a common sun-gla.s.s, or a pair of spectacles. Every one who has seen a sun-gla.s.s, knows, that, when held towards the sun, it collects the solar rays into a small bright circle in the focus. This is in fact a small _image_ of the sun. In the same manner, the image of any distant object, as a star, may be formed, as is represented in the following diagram. Let A B C D, Fig. 4, represent the tube of the telescope. At the front end, or at the end which is directed towards the object, (which we will suppose to be the moon,) is inserted a convex lens, L, which receives the rays of light from the moon, and collects them into the focus at _a_, forming an image of the moon. This image is viewed by a magnifier attached to the end B C. The lens, L, is called the _object-gla.s.s_, and the microscope in B C, the _eyegla.s.s_. We apply a microscope to this image just as we would to any object; and, by greatly enlarging its dimensions, we may render its various parts far more distinct than they would otherwise be; while, at the same time, the lens collects and conveys to the eye a much greater quant.i.ty of light than would proceed directly from the body under examination. A very few rays of light only, from a distant object, as a star, can enter the eye directly; but a lens one foot in diameter will collect a beam of light of the same dimensions, and convey it to the eye. By these means, many obscure celestial objects become distinctly visible, which would otherwise be either too minute, or not sufficiently luminous, to be seen by us.

But the image may also be formed by means of a _concave mirror_, which, as well as the concave lens, has the property of collecting the rays of light which proceed from any luminous body, and of forming an image of that body. The image formed by a concave mirror is magnified by a microscope, in the same manner as when formed by the concave lens. When the lens is used to form an image, the instrument is called a _refracting telescope_; when a concave mirror is used, it is called a _reflecting telescope_.

The office of the object-gla.s.s is simply _to collect_ the light, and to form an _image_ of the object, but not to magnify it: the magnifying power is wholly in the eyegla.s.s. Hence the principle of the telescope is as follows: _By means of the object-gla.s.s_, (in the refracting telescope,) _or by the concave mirror_, (in the reflecting telescope,) _we form an image of the object_, _and magnify that image by a microscope_.

The invention of this n.o.ble instrument is generally ascribed to the great philosopher of Florence, Galileo. He had heard that a spectacle maker of Holland had accidentally hit upon a discovery, by which distant objects might be brought apparently nearer; and, without further information, he pursued the inquiry, in order to ascertain what forms and combinations of gla.s.ses would produce such a result. By a very philosophical process of reasoning, he was led to the discovery of that peculiar form of the telescope which bears his name.

Although the telescopes made by Galileo were no larger than a common spygla.s.s of the kind now used on board of ships, yet, as they gave new views of the heavenly bodies, revealing the mountains and valleys of the moon, the satellites of Jupiter, and mult.i.tudes of stars which are invisible to the naked eye, it was regarded with infinite delight and astonishment.

_Reflecting_ telescopes were first constructed by Sir Isaac Newton, although the use of a concave reflector, instead of an object-gla.s.s, to form the image, had been previously suggested by Gregory, an eminent Scotch astronomer. The first telescope made by Newton was only six inches long. Its reflector, too, was only a little more than an inch.

Notwithstanding its small dimensions, it performed so well, as to encourage further efforts; and this ill.u.s.trious philosopher afterwards constructed much larger instruments, one of which, made with his own hands, was presented to the Royal Society of London, and is now carefully preserved in their library.

Newton was induced to undertake the construction of reflecting telescopes, from the belief that refracting telescopes were necessarily limited to a very small size, with only moderate illuminating powers, whereas the dimensions and powers of the former admitted of being indefinitely increased. Considerable _magnifying_ powers might, indeed, be obtained from refractors, by making them very long; but the _brightness_ with which telescopic objects are seen, depends greatly on the dimensions of the beam of light which is collected by the object-gla.s.s, or by the mirror, and conveyed to the eye; and therefore, small object-gla.s.ses cannot have a very high illuminating power. Now, the experiments of Newton on colors led him to believe, that it would be impossible to employ large lenses in the construction of telescopes, since such gla.s.ses would give to the images, they formed, the colors of the rainbow. But later opticians have found means of correcting these imperfections, so that we are now able to use object-gla.s.ses a foot or more in diameter, which give very clear and bright images. Such instruments are called _achromatic_ telescopes,--a name implying the absence of prismatic or rainbow colors in the image. It is, however, far more difficult to construct large achromatic than large reflecting telescopes. Very large pieces of gla.s.s can seldom be found, that are sufficiently pure for the purpose; since every inequality in the gla.s.s, such as waves, tears, threads, and the like, spoils it for optical purposes, as it distorts the light, and produces nothing but confused images.

The achromatic telescope (that is, the refracting telescope, having such an object-gla.s.s as to give a colorless image) was invented by Dollond, a distinguished English artist, about the year 1757. He had in his possession a quant.i.ty of gla.s.s of a remarkably fine quality, which enabled him to carry his invention at once to a high degree of perfection. It has ever since been, with the manufacturers of telescopes, a matter of the greatest difficulty to find pieces of gla.s.s, of a suitable quality for object-gla.s.ses, more than two or three inches in diameter. Hence, large achromatic telescopes are very expensive, being valued in proportion to the _cubes_ of their diameters; that is, if a telescope whose aperture (as the breadth of the object-gla.s.s is technically called) is two inches, cost one hundred dollars, one whose aperture is eight inches would cost six thousand four hundred dollars.

Since it is so much easier to make large reflecting than large refracting telescopes, you may ask, why the latter are ever attempted, and why reflectors are not exclusively employed? I answer, that the achromatic telescope, when large and well constructed, is a more perfect and more durable instrument than the reflecting telescope. Much more of the light that falls on the mirror is absorbed than is lost in pa.s.sing through the object-gla.s.s of a refractor; and hence the larger achromatic telescopes afford a stronger light than the reflecting, unless the latter are made of an enormous and unwieldy size. Moreover, the mirror is very liable to tarnish, and will never retain its full l.u.s.tre for many years together; and it is no easy matter to restore the l.u.s.tre, when once impaired.

In my next Letter, I will give you an account of some of the most celebrated telescopes that have ever been constructed, and point out the method of using this excellent instrument, so as to obtain with it the finest views of the heavenly bodies.

FOOTNOTE:

[2] From two Greek words, =tele=, (_tele_,) _far_, and =schopeo=, (_skopeo_,) _to see_.

LETTER IV

TELESCOPE CONTINUED.

----"the broad circ.u.mference Hung on his shoulders like the moon, whose orb Through _optic gla.s.s_ the Tuscan artist views At evening, from the top of Fesole Or in Valdarno, to descry new lands, Rivers or mountains, in her spotted globe."--_Milton._

The two most celebrated telescopes, hitherto made, are Herschel's _forty-feet reflector_, and the _great Dorpat refractor_. Herschel was a Hanoverian by birth, but settled in England in the younger part of his life. As early as 1774, he began to make telescopes for his own use; and, during his life, he made more than four hundred, of various sizes and powers. Under the patronage of George the Third, he completed, in 1789, his great telescope, having a tube of iron, forty feet long, and a speculum, forty-nine and a half inches or more than four feet in diameter. Let us endeavor to form a just conception of this gigantic instrument, which we can do only by dwelling on its dimensions, and comparing them with those of other objects with which we are familiar, as the length or height of a house, and the breadth of a hogshead or cistern, of known dimensions. The reflector alone weighed nearly a ton.

So large and ponderous an instrument must require a vast deal of machinery to work it, and to keep it steady; and, accordingly, the framework surrounding it was formed of heavy timbers, and resembled the frame of a large building. When one of the largest of the fixed stars, as Sirius, is entering the field of this telescope, its approach is announced by a bright dawn, like that which precedes the rising sun; and when the star itself enters the field, the light is insupportable to the naked eye. The planets are expanded into brilliant luminaries, like the moon; and innumerable mult.i.tudes of stars are scattered like glittering dust over the celestial vault.

The great Dorpat telescope is of more recent construction. It was made by Fraunhofer, a German optician of the greatest eminence, at Munich, in Bavaria, and takes its name from its being attached to the observatory at Dorpat, in Russia. It is of much smaller dimensions than the great telescope of Herschel. Its object-gla.s.s is nine and a half inches in diameter, and its length, fourteen feet. Although the price of this instrument was nearly five thousand dollars, yet it is said that this sum barely covered the actual expenses. It weighs five thousand pounds, and yet is turned with the finger. In facility of management, it has greatly the advantage of Herschel's telescope. Moreover, the sky of England is so much of the time unfavorable for astronomical observation, that _one hundred_ good hours (or those in which the higher powers can be used) are all that can be obtained in a whole year. On this account, and on account of the difficulty of shifting the position of the instrument, Herschel estimated that it would take about six hundred years to obtain with it even a momentary glimpse of every part of the heavens. This remark shows that such great telescopes are unsuited to the common purposes of astronomical observation. Indeed, most of Herschel's discoveries were made with his small telescopes; and although, for certain rare purposes, powers were applied which magnified seven thousand times, yet, in most of his observations, powers magnifying only two or three hundred times were employed. The highest power of the Dorpat telescope is only seven hundred, and yet the director of this instrument, Professor Struve, is of the opinion, that it is nearly or quite equal in quality, all things considered, to Herschel's forty-feet reflector.

It is not generally understood in what way greatness of size in a telescope increases its powers; and it conveys but an imperfect idea of the excellence of a telescope, to tell how much it magnifies. In the same instrument, an increase of magnifying power is always attended with a diminution of the light and of the field of view. Hence, the lower powers generally afford the most agreeable views, because they give the clearest light, and take in the largest s.p.a.ce. The several circ.u.mstances which influence the qualities of a telescope are, illuminating power, distinctness, field of view, and magnifying power. Large mirrors and large object-gla.s.ses are superior to smaller ones, because they collect a larger beam of light, and transmit it to the eye. Stars which are invisible to the naked eye are rendered visible by the telescope, because this instrument collects and conveys to the eye a large beam of the few rays which emanate from the stars; whereas a beam of these rays of only the diameter of the pupil of the eye, would afford too little light for distinct vision. In this particular, large telescopes have great advantages over small ones. The great mirror of Herschel's forty-feet reflector collects and conveys to the eye a beam more than four feet in diameter. The Dorpat telescope also transmits to the eye a beam nine and one half inches in diameter. This seems small, in comparison with the reflector; but much less of the light is lost on pa.s.sing through the gla.s.s than is absorbed by the mirror, and the mirror is very liable to be clouded or tarnished; so that there is not so great a difference in the two instruments, in regard to illuminating power, as might be supposed from the difference of size.

_Distinctness of view_ is all-important to the performance of an instrument. The object may be sufficiently bright, yet, if the image is distorted, or ill-defined, the illumination is of little consequence.

This property depends mainly on the skill with which all the imperfections of figure and color in the gla.s.s or mirror are corrected, and can exist in perfection only when the image is rendered completely achromatic, and when all the rays that proceed from each point in the object are collected into corresponding points of the image, unaccompanied by any other rays. Distinctness is very much affected by the _steadiness_ of the instrument. Every one knows how indistinct a page becomes, when a book is pa.s.sed rapidly backwards and forwards before the eyes, and how difficult it is to read in a carriage in rapid motion on a rough road.

_Field of view_ is another important consideration. The finest instruments exhibit the moon, for example, not only bright and distinct, in all its parts, but they take in the whole disk at once; whereas, the inferior instruments, when the higher powers, especially, are applied, permit us to see only a small part of the moon at once.

I hope, my friend, that, when you have perused these Letters, or rather, while you are perusing them, you will have frequent opportunities of looking through a good telescope. I even antic.i.p.ate that you will acquire such a taste for viewing the heavenly bodies with the aid of a good gla.s.s, that you will deem a telescope a most suitable appendage to your library, and as certainly not less an ornament to it than the more expensive statues with which some people of fortune adorn theirs. I will therefore, before concluding this letter, offer you a few _directions for using the telescope_.

Some states of weather, even when the sky is clear, are far more favorable for astronomical observation than others. After sudden changes of temperature in the atmosphere, the medium is usually very unsteady.

If the sun shines out warm after a cloudy season, the ground first becomes heated, and the air that is nearest to it is expanded, and rises, while the colder air descends, and thus ascending and descending currents of air, mingling together, create a confused and wavy medium.

The same cause operates when a current of hot air rises from a chimney; and hence the state of the atmosphere in cities and large towns is very unfavorable to the astronomer, on this account, as well as on account of the smoky condition in which it is usually found. After a long season of dry weather, also, the air becomes smoky, and unfit for observation.

Indeed, foggy, misty, or smoky, air is so prevalent in some countries, that only a very few times in the whole year can be found, which are entirely suited to observation, especially with the higher powers; for we must recollect, that these inequalities and imperfections are magnified by telescopes, as well as the objects themselves. Thus, as I have already mentioned, not more than one hundred good hours in a year could be obtained for observation with Herschel's great telescope. By _good_ hours, Herschel means that the sky must be very clear, the moon absent, no twilight, no haziness, no violent wind, and no sudden change of temperature. As a general fact, the warmer climates enjoy a much finer sky for the astronomer than the colder, having many more clear evenings, a short twilight, and less change of temperature. The watery vapor of the atmosphere, also, is more perfectly dissolved in hot than in cold air, and the more water air contains, provided it is in a state of perfect solution, the clearer it is.

A _certain preparation of the observer himself_ is also requisite for the nicest observations with the telescope. He must be free from all agitation, and the eye must not recently have been exposed to a strong light, which contracts the pupil of the eye. Indeed, for delicate observations, the observer should remain for some time beforehand in a dark room, to let the pupil of the eye dilate. By this means, it will be enabled to admit a larger number of the rays of light. In ascending the stairs of an observatory, visitors frequently get out of breath, and having perhaps recently emerged from a strongly-lighted apartment, the eye is not in a favorable state for observation. Under these disadvantages, they take a hasty look into the telescope, and it is no wonder that disappointment usually follows.

Want of steadiness is a great difficulty attending the use of the highest magnifiers; for the motions of the instrument are magnified as well as the object. Hence, in the structure of observatories, the greatest pains is requisite, to avoid all tremor, and to give to the instruments all possible steadiness; and the same care is to be exercised by observers. In the more refined observations, only one or two persons ought to be near the instrument.

In general, _low powers_ afford better views of the heavenly bodies than very high magnifiers. It may be thought absurd, to recommend the use of low powers, in respect to large instruments especially, since it is commonly supposed that the advantage of large instruments is, that they will bear high magnifying powers. But this is not their only, nor even their princ.i.p.al, advantage. A good light and large field are qualities, for most purposes, more important than great magnifying power; and it must be borne in mind, that, as we increase the magnifying power in a given instrument, we diminish both the illumination and the field of view. Still, different objects require different magnifying powers; and a telescope is usually furnished with several varieties of powers, one of which is best fitted for viewing the moon, another for Jupiter, and a still higher power for Saturn. Comets require only the lowest magnifiers; for here, our object is to command as much light, and as large a field, as possible, while it avails little to increase the dimensions of the object. On the other hand, for certain double stars, (stars which appear single to the naked eye, but double to the telescope,) we require very high magnifiers, in order to separate these minute objects so far from each other, that the interval can be distinctly seen. Whenever we exhibit celestial objects to inexperienced observers, it is useful to precede the view with good _drawings_ of the objects, accompanied by an explanation of what each appearance, exhibited in the telescope, indicates. The novice is told, that mountains and valleys can be seen in the moon by the aid of the telescope; but, on looking, he sees a confused ma.s.s of light and shade, and nothing which looks to him like either mountains or valleys. Had his attention been previously directed to a plain drawing of the moon, and each particular appearance interpreted to him, he would then have looked through the telescope with intelligence and satisfaction.

LETTER V.

OBSERVATORIES.

"We, though from heaven remote, to heaven will move, With strength of mind, and tread the abyss above; And penetrate, with an interior light, Those upper depths which Nature hid from sight.

Pleased we will be, to walk along the sphere Of shining stars, and travel with the year."--_Ovid._

An observatory is a structure fitted up expressly for astronomical observations, and furnished with suitable instruments for that purpose.

The two most celebrated observatories, hitherto built, are that of Tycho Brahe, and that of Greenwich, near London. The observatory of Tycho Brahe, Fig. 5, was constructed at the expense of the King of Denmark, in a style of royal magnificence, and cost no less than two hundred thousand crowns. It was situated on the island of Huenna, at the entrance of the Baltic, and was called Uraniburg, or the palace of the skies.

Before I give you an account of Tycho's observatory, I will recite a few particulars respecting this great astronomer himself.

Tycho Brahe was of Swedish descent, and of n.o.ble family; but having received his education at the University of Copenhagen, and spent a large part of his life in Denmark, he is usually considered as a Dane, and quoted as a Danish astronomer. He was born in the year 1546. When he was about fourteen years old, there happened a great eclipse of the sun, which awakened in him a high interest, especially when he saw how [Ill.u.s.tration Fig. 5.] accurately all the circ.u.mstances of it answered to the prediction with which he had been before made acquainted. He was immediately seized with an irresistible pa.s.sion to acquire a knowledge of the science which could so successfully lift the veil of futurity.

His friends had destined him for the profession of law, and, from the superior talents of which he gave early promise, and with the advantage of powerful family connexions, they had marked out for him a distinguished career in public life. They therefore endeavored to discourage him from pursuing a path which they deemed so much less glorious than that, and vainly sought, by various means, to extinguish the zeal for astronomy which was kindled in his youthful bosom.

Despising all the attractions of a court, he contracted an alliance with a peasant girl, and, in the peaceful retirement of domestic life, desired no happier lot than to peruse the grand volume which the nocturnal heavens displayed to his enthusiastic imagination. He soon established his fame as one of the greatest astronomers of the age, and monarchs did homage to his genius. The King of Denmark became his munificent patron, and James the First, King of England, when he went to Denmark to complete his marriage with a Danish Princess, pa.s.sed eight days with Tycho in his observatory, and, at his departure, addressed to the astronomer a Latin ode, accompanied with a magnificent present. He gave him also his royal license to print his works in England, and added to it the following complimentary letter: "Nor am I acquainted with these things on the relation of others, or from a mere perusal of your works, but I have seen them with my own eyes, and heard them with my own ears, in your residence at Uraniburg, during the various learned and agreeable conversations which I there held with you, which even now affect my mind to such a degree, that it is difficult to decide, whether I recollect them with greater pleasure or admiration." Admiring disciples also crowded to this sanctuary of the sciences, to acquire a knowledge of the heavens.

The observatory consisted of a main building, which was square, each side being sixty feet, and of large wings in the form of round towers.

The whole was executed in a style of great magnificence, and Tycho, who was a n.o.bleman by descent, gratified his taste for splendor and ornament, by giving to every part of the structure an air of the most finished elegance. Nor were the instruments with which it was furnished less magnificent than the buildings. They were vastly larger than had before been employed in the survey of the heavens, and many of them were adorned with costly ornaments. The cut on page 46, Fig. 6, represents one of Tycho's large and splendid instruments, (an astronomical quadrant,) on one side of which was figured a representation of the astronomer and his a.s.sistants, in the midst of their instruments, and intently engaged in making and recording observations. It conveys to us a striking idea of the magnificence of his arrangements, and of the extent of his operations.

Here Tycho sat in state, clad in the robes of n.o.bility, and supported throughout his establishment the etiquette due to his rank. His observations were more numerous than all that had ever been made before, and they were carried to a degree of accuracy that is astonishing, when we consider that they were made without the use of the telescope, which was not yet invented.

Tycho carried on his observations at Uraniburg for about twenty years, during which time he acc.u.mulated an immense store of accurate and valuable _facts_, which afforded the groundwork of the discovery of the great laws of the solar system established by Kepler, of whom I shall tell you more hereafter.

But the high marks of distinction which Tycho enjoyed, not only from his own Sovereign, but also from foreign potentates, provoked the envy of the courtiers of his royal patron. They did not indeed venture to make their attacks upon him while his generous patron was living; but the King was no sooner dead, and succeeded by a young monarch, who did not feel the same [Ill.u.s.tration Fig. 6.] interest in protecting and encouraging this great ornament of the kingdom, than his envious foes carried into execution their long-meditated plot for his ruin. They represented to the young King, that the treasury was exhausted, and that it was necessary to retrench a number of pensions, which had been granted for useless purposes, and in particular that of Tycho, which, they maintained, ought to be conferred upon some person capable of rendering greater services to the state. By these means, they succeeded in depriving him of his support, and he was compelled to retreat under the hospitable mansion of a friend in Germany. Here he became known to the Emperor, who invited him to Prague, where, with an ample stipend, he resumed his labors. But, though surrounded with affectionate friends and admiring disciples, he was still an exile in a foreign land. Although his country had been base in its ingrat.i.tude, it was yet the land which he loved; the scene of his earliest affection; the theatre of his scientific glory. These feelings continually preyed upon his mind, and his unsettled spirit was ever hovering among his native mountains. In this condition he was attacked by a disease of the most painful kind, and, though its agonizing paroxysms had lengthened intermissions, yet he saw that death was approaching. He implored his pupils to persevere in their scientific labors; he conversed with Kepler on some of the profoundest points of astronomy; and with these secular occupations he mingled frequent acts of piety and devotion. In this happy condition he expired, without pain, at the age of fifty-five.[3]

The observatory at Greenwich was not built until a hundred years after that of Tycho Brahe, namely, in 1676. The great interests of the British nation, which are involved in navigation, const.i.tuted the ruling motive with the government to lend their aid in erecting and maintaining this observatory.

The site of the observatory at Greenwich is on a commanding eminence facing the River Thames, five miles east of the central parts of London.

Being part of a royal park, the neighboring grounds are in no danger of being occupied by buildings, so as to obstruct the view. It is also in full view of the shipping on the Thames; and, according to a standing regulation of the observatory, at the instant of one o'clock, every day, a huge ball is dropped from over the house, as a signal to the commanders of vessels for regulating their chronometers.

The buildings comprise a series of rooms, of sufficient number and extent to accommodate the different instruments, the inmates of the establishment, and the library; and on the top is a celebrated camera obscura, exhibiting a most distinct and perfect picture of the grand and unrivalled scenery which this eminence commands.