Letters on Astronomy Part 15

It is difficult, however, sometimes to decide whether the language of Galileo is ironical, or whether he uses it with subtlety, with the hope of evading the anathemas of the Inquisition. Thus he ends one of his writings with the following pa.s.sage: "In conclusion, since the motion attributed to the earth, which I, as a pious and Catholic person, consider most false, and not to exist, accommodates itself so well to explain so many and such different phenomena, I shall not feel sure that, false as it is, it may not just as deludingly correspond with the phenomena of comets."

In the year 1624, soon after the accession of Urban the Eighth to the Pontifical chair, Galileo went to Rome again, to offer his congratulations to the new Pope, as well as to propitiate his favor. He seems to have been received with unexpected cordiality; and, on his departure, the Pope commended him to the good graces of Ferdinand, Grand Duke of Tuscany, in the following terms: "We find in him not only literary distinction, but also the love of piety, and he is strong in those qualities by which Pontifical good-will is easily obtained. And now, when he has been brought to this city, to congratulate Us on Our elevation, We have lovingly embraced him; nor can We suffer him to return to the country whither your liberality recalls him, without an ample provision of Pontifical love. And that you may know how dear he is to Us, we have willed to give him this honorable testimonial of virtue and piety. And We further signify, that every benefit which you shall confer upon him will conduce to Our gratification."

In the year 1630, Galileo finished a great work, on which he had been long engaged, ent.i.tled, 'The Dialogue on the Ptolemaic and Copernican Systems.' From the notion which prevailed, that he still countenanced the Copernican doctrine of the earth's motion, which had been condemned as heretical, it was some time before he could obtain permission from the Inquisitors (whose license was necessary to every book) to publish it. This he was able to do, only by employing again that duplicity or artifice which would throw dust in the eyes of the vain and superst.i.tious priesthood. In 1632, the work appeared under the following t.i.tle: 'A Dialogue, by Galileo Galilei, Extraordinary Mathematician of the University of Pisa, and Princ.i.p.al Philosopher and Mathematician of the Most Serene Grand Duke of Tuscany; in which, in a Conversation of four days, are discussed the two princ.i.p.al Systems of the World, the Ptolemaic and Copernican, indeterminately proposing the Philosophical Arguments as well on one side as on the other.' The subtle disguise which he wore, may be seen from the following extract from his 'Introduction,' addressed 'To the discreet Reader.'

"Some years ago, a salutary edict was promulgated at Rome, which, in order to obviate the perilous scandals of the present age, enjoined an opportune silence on the Pythagorean opinion of the earth's motion. Some were not wanting, who rashly a.s.serted that this decree originated, not in a judicious examination, but in ill-informed pa.s.sion; and complaints were heard, that counsellors totally inexperienced in astronomical observations ought not, by hasty prohibitions, to clip the wings of speculative minds. My zeal could not keep silence when I heard these rash lamentations, and I thought it proper, as being fully informed with regard to that most prudent determination, to appear publicly on the theatre of the world, as a witness of the actual truth. I happened at that time to be in Rome: I was admitted to the audiences, and enjoyed the approbation, of the most eminent prelates of that court; nor did the publication of that decree occur without my receiving some prior intimation of it. Wherefore, it is my intention, in this present work, to show to foreign nations, that as much is known of this matter in Italy, and particularly in Rome, as ultramontane diligence can ever have formed any notion of, and collecting together all my own speculations on the Copernican system, to give them to understand that the knowledge of all these preceded the Roman censures; and that from this country proceed not only dogmas for the salvation of the soul, but also ingenious discoveries for the gratification of the understanding. With this object, I have taken up in the 'Dialogue' the Copernican side of the question, treating it as a pure mathematical hypothesis; and endeavoring, in every artificial manner, to represent it as having the advantage, not over the opinion of the stability of the earth absolutely, but according to the manner in which that opinion is defended by some, who indeed profess to be Aristotelians, but retain only the name, and are contented, without improvement, to worship shadows, not philosophizing with their own reason, but only from the recollection of the four principles imperfectly understood."

Although the Pope himself, as well as the Inquisitors, had examined Galileo's ma.n.u.script, and, not having the sagacity to detect the real motives of the author, had consented to its publication, yet, when the book was out, the enemies of Galileo found means to alarm the court of Rome, and Galileo was summoned to appear before the Inquisition. The philosopher was then seventy years old, and very infirm, and it was with great difficulty that he performed the journey. His unequalled dignity and celebrity, however, commanded the involuntary respect of the tribunal before which he was summoned, which they manifested by permitting him to reside at the palace of his friend, the Tuscan Amba.s.sador; and when it became necessary, in the course of the inquiry, to examine him in person, although his removal to the Holy Office was then insisted upon, yet he was not, like other heretics, committed to close and solitary confinement. On the contrary, he was lodged in the apartments of the Head of the Inquisition, where he was allowed the attendance of his own servant, who was also permitted to sleep in an adjoining room, and to come and go at pleasure. These were deemed extraordinary indulgences in an age when the punishment of heretics usually began before their trial.

About four months after Galileo's arrival in Rome, he was summoned to the Holy Office. He was detained there during the whole of that day; and on the next day was conducted, in a penitential dress, to the Convent of Minerva, where the Cardinals and Prelates, his judges, were a.s.sembled for the purpose of pa.s.sing judgement upon him, by which this venerable old man was solemnly called upon to renounce and abjure, as impious and heretical, the opinions which his whole existence had been consecrated to form and strengthen. Probably there is not a more curious doc.u.ment in the history of science, than that which contains the sentence of the Inquisition on Galileo, and his consequent abjuration. It teaches us so much, both of the darkness and bigotry of the terrible Inquisition, and of the sufferings encountered by those early martyrs of science, that I will transcribe for your perusal, from the excellent 'Life of Galileo'

in the 'Library of Useful Knowledge,' (from which I have borrowed much already,) the entire record of this transaction. The sentence of the Inquisition is as follows:

"We, the undersigned, by the grace of G.o.d, Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, Inquisitors General throughout the whole Christian Republic, Special Deputies of the Holy Apostolical Chair against heretical depravity:

"Whereas, you, Galileo, son of the late Vincenzo Galilei of Florence, aged seventy years, were denounced in 1615, to this Holy Office, for holding as true a false doctrine taught by many, namely, that the sun is immovable in the centre of the world, and that the earth moves, and also with a diurnal motion; also, for having pupils which you instructed in the same opinions; also, for maintaining a correspondence on the same with some German mathematicians; also, for publishing certain letters on the solar spots, in which you developed the same doctrine as true; also, for answering the objections which were continually produced from the Holy Scriptures, by glozing the said Scriptures, according to your own meaning; and whereas, thereupon was produced the copy of a writing, in form of a letter, professedly written by you to a person formerly your pupil, in which, following the hypothesis of Copernicus, you include several propositions contrary to the true sense and authority of the Holy Scriptures: therefore, this Holy Tribunal, being desirous of providing against the disorder and mischief which was thence proceeding and increasing, to the detriment of the holy faith, by the desire of His Holiness, and of the Most Eminent Lords Cardinals of this supreme and universal Inquisition, the two propositions of the stability of the sun, and motion of the earth, were _qualified_ by the _Theological Qualifiers_, as follows:

"1. The proposition that the sun is in the centre of the world, and immovable from its place, is absurd, philosophically false, and formally heretical; because it is expressly contrary to the Holy Scriptures.

"2. The proposition that the earth is not the centre of the world, nor immovable, but that it moves, and also with a diurnal motion, is also absurd, philosophically false, and, theologically considered, equally erroneous in faith.

"But whereas, being pleased at that time to deal mildly with you, it was decreed in the Holy Congregation, held before His Holiness on the twenty-fifth day of February, 1616, that His Eminence the Lord Cardinal Bellarmine should enjoin you to give up altogether the said false doctrine; if you should refuse, that you should be ordered by the Commissary of the Holy Office to relinquish it, not to teach it to others, nor to defend it, and in default of the acquiescence, that you should be imprisoned; and in execution of this decree, on the following day, at the palace, in presence of His Eminence the said Lord Cardinal Bellarmine, after you had been mildly admonished by the said Lord Cardinal, you were commanded by the acting Commissary of the Holy Office, before a notary and witnesses, to relinquish altogether the said false opinion, and in future neither to defend nor teach it in any manner, neither verbally nor in writing, and upon your promising obedience, you were dismissed.

"And, in order that so pernicious a doctrine might be altogether rooted out, nor insinuate itself further to the heavy detriment of the Catholic truth, a decree emanated from the Holy Congregation of the Index, prohibiting the books which treat of this doctrine; and it was declared false, and altogether contrary to the Holy and Divine Scripture.

"And whereas, a book has since appeared, published at Florence last year, the t.i.tle of which showed that you were the author, which t.i.tle is, '_The Dialogue of Galileo Galilei, on the two princ.i.p.al Systems of the World, the Ptolemaic and Copernican_;' and whereas, the Holy Congregation has heard that, in consequence of printing the said book, the false opinion of the earth's motion and stability of the sun is daily gaining ground; the said book has been taken into careful consideration, and in it has been detected a glaring violation of the said order, which had been intimated to you; inasmuch as in this book you have defended the said opinion, already, and in your presence, condemned; although in the said book you labor, with many circ.u.mlocutions, to induce the belief that it is left by you undecided, and in express terms probable; which is equally a very grave error, since an opinion can in no way be probable which has been already declared and finally determined contrary to the Divine Scripture.

Therefore, by Our order, you have been cited to this Holy Office, where, on your examination upon oath, you have acknowledged the said book as written and printed by you. You also confessed that you began to write the said book ten or twelve years ago, after the order aforesaid had been given. Also, that you demanded license to publish it, but without signifying to those who granted you this permission, that you had been commanded not to hold, defend, or teach, the said doctrine in any manner. You also confessed, that the style of said book was, in many places, so composed, that the reader might think the arguments adduced on the false side to be so worded, as more effectually to entangle the understanding than to be easily solved, alleging, in excuse, that you have thus run into an error, foreign (as you say) to your intention, from writing in the form of a dialogue, and in consequence of the natural complacency which every one feels with regard to his own subtilties, and in showing himself more skilful than the generality of mankind in contriving, even in favor of false propositions, ingenious and apparently probable arguments.

"And, upon a convenient time being given you for making your defence, you produced a certificate in the handwriting of His Eminence, the Lord Cardinal Bellarmine, procured, as you said, by yourself, that you might defend yourself against the calumnies of your enemies, who reported that you had abjured your opinions, and had been punished by the Holy Office; in which certificate it is declared, that you had not abjured, nor had been punished, but merely that the declaration made by his Holiness, and promulgated by the Holy Congregation of the Index, had been announced to you, which declares that the opinion of the motion of the earth, and stability of the sun, is contrary to the Holy Scriptures, and therefore cannot be held or defended. Wherefore, since no mention is there made of two articles of the order, to wit, the order 'not to teach,' and 'in any manner,' you argued that we ought to believe that, in the lapse of fourteen or sixteen years, they had escaped your memory, and that this was also the reason why you were silent as to the order, when you sought permission to publish your book, and that this is said by you, not to excuse your error, but that it may be attributed to vain-glorious ambition rather than to malice. But this very certificate, produced on your behalf, has greatly aggravated your offence, since it is therein declared, that the said opinion is contrary to the Holy Scriptures, and yet you have dared to treat of it, and to argue that it is probable; nor is there any extenuation in the license artfully and cunningly extorted by you, since you did not intimate the command imposed upon you. But whereas, it appeared to Us that you had not disclosed the whole truth with regard to your intentions, We thought it necessary to proceed to the rigorous examination of you, in which (without any prejudice to what you had confessed, and which is above detailed against you, with regard to your said intention) you answered like a good Catholic.

"Therefore, having seen and maturely considered the merits of your cause, with your said confessions and excuses, and every thing else which ought to be seen and considered, We have come to the underwritten final sentence against you:

"Invoking, therefore, the most holy name of our Lord Jesus Christ, and of his Most Glorious Virgin Mother, Mary, by this Our final sentence, which, sitting in council and judgement for the tribunal of the Reverend Masters of Sacred Theology, and Doctors of both Laws, Our a.s.sessors, We put forth in this writing touching the matters and controversies before Us, between the Magnificent Charles Sincerus, Doctor of both Laws, Fiscal Proctor of this Holy Office, of the one part, and you, Galileo Galilei, an examined and confessed criminal from this present writing now in progress, as above, of the other part, We p.r.o.nounce, judge, and declare, that you, the said Galileo, by reason of these things which have been detailed in the course of this writing, and which, as above, you have confessed, have rendered yourself vehemently suspected, by this Holy Office, of heresy; that is to say, that you believe and hold the false doctrine, and contrary to the Holy and Divine Scriptures, namely, that the sun is the centre of the world, and that it does not move from east to west, and that the earth does move, and is not the centre of the world; also, that an opinion can be held and supported, as probable, after it has been declared and finally decreed contrary to the Holy Scripture, and consequently, that you have incurred all the censures and penalties enjoined and promulgated in the sacred canons, and other general and particular const.i.tutions against delinquents of this description. From which it is Our pleasure that you be absolved, provided that, with a sincere heart and unfeigned faith, in Our presence, you abjure, curse, and detest, the said errors and heresies, and every other error and heresy, contrary to the Catholic and Apostolic Church of Rome, in the form now shown to you.

"But that your grievous and pernicious error and transgression may not go altogether unpunished, and that you may be made more cautious in future, and may be a warning to others to abstain from delinquencies of this sort, We decree, that the book of the Dialogues of Galileo Galilei be prohibited by a public edict, and We condemn you to the formal prison of this Holy Office for a period determinable at Our pleasure; and, by way of salutary penance, We order you, during the next three years, to recite, once a week, the seven penitential psalms, reserving to Ourselves the power of moderating, commuting, or taking off the whole or part of the said punishment, or penance.

"And so We say, p.r.o.nounce, and by Our sentence declare, decree, and reserve, in this and in every other better form and manner, which lawfully We may and can use. So We, the subscribing Cardinals, p.r.o.nounce." [Subscribed by seven Cardinals.]

In conformity with the foregoing sentence, Galileo was made to kneel before the Inquisition, and make the following _Abjuration_:

"I, Galileo Galilei, son of the late Vincenzo Galilei, of Florence, aged seventy years, being brought personally to judgement, and kneeling before you, Most Eminent and Most Reverend Lords Cardinals, General Inquisitors of the Universal Christian Republic against heretical depravity, having before my eyes the Holy Gospels, which I touch with my own hands, swear, that I have always believed, and with the help of G.o.d will in future believe, every article which the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of Rome holds, teaches, and preaches. But because I had been enjoined, by this Holy Office, altogether to abandon the false opinion which maintains that the sun is the centre and immovable, and forbidden to hold, defend, or teach, the said false doctrine, in any manner: and after it had been signified to me that the said doctrine is repugnant to the Holy Scripture, I have written and printed a book, in which I treat of the same doctrine now condemned, and adduce reasons with great force in support of the same, without giving any solution, and therefore have been judged grievously suspected of heresy; that is to say, that I held and believed that the sun is the centre of the world and immovable, and that the earth is not the centre and movable; willing, therefore, to remove from the minds of Your Eminences, and of every Catholic Christian, this vehement suspicion rightfully entertained towards me, with a sincere heart and unfeigned faith, I abjure, curse, and defeat, the said errors and heresies, and generally every other error and sect contrary to the said Holy Church; and I swear, that I will never more in future say or a.s.sert any thing, verbally or in writing, which may give rise to a similar suspicion of me: but if I shall know any heretic, or any one suspected of heresy, that I will denounce him to this Holy Office, or to the Inquisitor and Ordinary of the place in which I may be. I swear, moreover, and promise, that I will fulfil and observe fully, all the penances which have been or shall be laid on me by this Holy Office. But if it shall happen that I violate any of my said promises, oaths, and protestations, (which G.o.d avert!) I subject myself to all the pains and punishments which have been decreed and promulgated by the sacred canons, and other general and particular const.i.tutions, against delinquents of this description. So may G.o.d help me, and his Holy Gospels, which I touch with my own hands. I, the above-named Galileo Galilei, have abjured, sworn, promised, and bound myself, as above; and in witness thereof, with my own hand have subscribed this present writing of my abjuration, which I have recited, word for word.

"At Rome, in the Convent of Minerva, twenty-second June, 1633, I, Galileo Galilei, have abjured as above, with my own hand."

From the court Galileo was conducted to prison, to be immured for life in one of the dungeons of the Inquisition. His sentence was afterwards mitigated, and he was permitted to return to Florence; but the humiliation to which he had been subjected pressed heavily on his spirits, beset as he was with infirmities, and totally blind, and he never more talked or wrote on the subject of astronomy.

There was enough in the character of Galileo to command a high admiration. There was much, also, in his sufferings in the cause of science, to excite the deepest sympathy, and even compa.s.sion. He is moreover universally represented to have been a man of great equanimity, and of a n.o.ble and generous disposition. No scientific character of the age, or perhaps of any age, forms a structure of finer proportions, or wears in a higher degree the grace of symmetry. Still, we cannot approve of his employing artifice in the promulgation of truth; and we are compelled to lament that his lofty spirit bowed in the final conflict.

How far, therefore, he sinks below the dignity of the Christian martyr!

"At the age of seventy," says Dr. Brewster, in his life of Sir Isaac Newton, "on his bended knees, and with his right hand resting on the Holy Evangelists, did this patriarch of science avow his present and past belief in the dogmas of the Romish Church, abandon as false and heretical the doctrine of the earth's motion and of the sun's immobility, and pledge himself to denounce to the Inquisition any other person who was even suspected of heresy. He abjured, cursed, and detested, those eternal and immutable truths which the Almighty had permitted him to be the first to establish. Had Galileo but added the courage of the martyr to the wisdom of the sage; had he carried the glance of his indignant eye round the circle of his judges; had he lifted his hands to heaven, and called the living G.o.d to witness the truth and immutability of his opinions; the bigotry of his enemies would have been disarmed, and science would have enjoyed a memorable triumph."

LETTER XXIII.

SATURN.--URa.n.u.s.--ASTEROIDS.

"Into the Heaven of Heavens I have presumed, An earthly guest, and drawn empyreal air."--_Milton._

THE consideration of the system of Jupiter and his satellites led us to review the interesting history of Galileo, who first, by means of the telescope, disclosed the knowledge of that system to the world. I will now proceed with the other superior planets.

Saturn, as well as Jupiter, has within itself a system on a scale of great magnificence. In size it is next to Jupiter the largest of the planets, being seventy-nine thousand miles in diameter, or about one thousand times as large as the earth. It has likewise belts on its surface, and is attended by seven satellites. But a still more wonderful appendage is its _Ring_, a broad wheel, encompa.s.sing the planet at a great distance from it. As Saturn is nine hundred millions of miles from us, we require a more powerful telescope to see his glories, in all their magnificence, than we do to enjoy a full view of the system of Jupiter. When we are privileged with a view of Saturn, in his most favorable positions, through a telescope of the larger cla.s.s, the mechanism appears more wonderful than even that of Jupiter.

Saturn's ring, when viewed with telescopes of a high power, is found to consist of two concentred rings, separated from each other by a dark s.p.a.ce. Although this division of the rings appears to us, on account of our immense distance, as only a fine line, yet it is, in reality, an interval of not less than eighteen hundred miles. The dimensions of the whole system are, in round numbers, as follows:

Miles.

Diameter of the planet, 79,000 From the surface of the planet to the inner ring, 20,000 Breadth of the inner ring, 17,000 Interval between the rings, 1,800 Breadth of the outer ring, 10,500 Extreme dimensions from outside to outside, 176,000

Figure 60, facing page 247, represents Saturn, as it appears to a powerful telescope, surrounded by its rings, and having its body striped with dark belts, somewhat similar, but broader and less strongly marked than those of Jupiter. In telescopes of inferior power, but still sufficient to see the ring distinctly, we should scarcely discern the belts at all. We might, however, observe the shadow cast upon the ring by the planet, (as seen in the figure on the right, on the upper side;) and, in favorable situations of the planet, we might discern glimpses of the shadow of the ring on the body of the planet, on the lower side beneath the ring. To see the division of the ring and the satellites requires a better telescope than is in possession of most observers.

With smaller telescopes, we may discover an oval figure of peculiar appearance, which it would be difficult to interpret. Galileo, who first saw it in the year 1610, recognised this peculiarity, but did not know what it meant. Seeing something in the centre with two projecting arms, one on each side, he concluded that the planet was triple-shaped. This was, at the time, all he could learn respecting it, as the telescopes he possessed were very humble, compared with those now used by astronomers.

The first constructed by him magnified but three times; his second, eight times; and his best, only thirty times, which is no better than a common ship-gla.s.s.

It was the practice of the astronomers of those days to give the first intimation of a new discovery in a Latin verse, the letters of which were transposed. This would enable them to claim priority, in case any other person should contest the honor of the discovery, and at the same time would afford opportunity to complete their observations, before they published a full account of them. Accordingly, Galileo announced the discovery of the singular appearance of Saturn under this disguise, in a line which, when the transposed letters were restored to their proper places, signified that he had observed, "that the most distant planet is triple-formed."[13] He shortly afterwards, at the request of his patron, the Emperor Rodolph, gave the solution, and added, "I have, with great admiration, observed that Saturn is not a single star, but three together, which, as it were, touch each other; they have no relative motion, and are const.i.tuted of this form, oOo, the middle one being somewhat larger than the two lateral ones. If we examine them with an eyegla.s.s which magnifies the surface less than one thousand times, the three stars do not appear very distinctly, but Saturn has an oblong appearance, like that of an olive, thus, {oblong symbol}. Now, I have discovered a court for Jupiter, (alluding to his satellites,) and two servants for this old man, (Saturn,) who aid his steps, and never quit his side."

It was by this mystic light that Galileo groped his way through an organization which, under the more powerful gla.s.ses of his successors, was to expand into a mighty orb, encompa.s.sed by splendid rings of vast dimensions, the whole attended by seven bright satellites. This system was first fully developed by Huyghens, a Dutch astronomer, about forty years afterwards.[14] It requires a superior telescope to see it to advantage; but, when seen through such a telescope, it is one of the most charming spectacles afforded to that instrument. To give some idea of the properties of a telescope suited to such observations, I annex an extract from an account, that was published a few years since, of a telescope constructed by Mr. Tully, a distinguished English artist. "The length of the instrument was twelve feet, but was easily adjusted, and was perfectly steady. The magnifying powers ranged from two hundred to seven hundred and eighty times; but the great excellence of the telescope consisted more in the superior distinctness and brilliancy with which objects were seen through it, than in its magnifying powers.

With a power of two hundred and forty, the light of Jupiter was almost more than the eye could bear, and his satellites appeared as bright as Sirius, but with a clear and steady light; and the belts and spots on the face of the planet were most distinctly defined. With a power of nearly four hundred, Saturn appeared large and well defined, and was one of the most beautiful objects that can well be conceived."

That the ring is a solid opaque substance, is shown by its throwing its shadow on the body of the planet on the side nearest the sun, and on the other side receiving that of the body. The ring encompa.s.ses the equatorial regions of the planet, and the planet revolves on an axis which is perpendicular to the plane of the ring in about ten and a half hours. This is known by observing the rotation of certain dusky spots, which sometimes appear on its surface. This motion is nearly the same with the diurnal motion of Jupiter, subjecting places on the equator of the planet to a very swift revolution, and occasioning a high degree of compression at the poles, the equatorial being to the polar diameter in the high ratio of eleven to ten.

Saturn's ring, in its revolution around the sun, _always remains parallel to itself_. If we hold opposite to the eye a circular ring or disk, like a piece of coin, it will appear as a complete circle only when it is at right angles to the axis of vision. When it is oblique to that axis, it will be projected into an ellipse more and more flattened, as its obliquity is increased, until, when its plane coincides with the axis of vision, it is projected into a straight line. Please to take some circle, as a flat plate, (whose rim may well represent the ring of Saturn,) and hold it in these different positions before the eye. Now, place on the table a lamp to represent the sun, and holding the ring at a certain distance, inclined a little towards the lamp, carry it round the lamp, always keeping it parallel to itself. During its revolution, it will twice present its edge to the lamp at opposite points; and twice, at places ninety degrees distant from those points, it will present its broadest face towards the lamp. At intermediate points, it will exhibit an ellipse more or less open, according as it is nearer one or the other of the preceding positions. It will be seen, also, that in one half of the revolution, the lamp shines on one side of the ring, and in the other half of the revolution, on the other side.

Such would be the successive appearances of Saturn's ring to a spectator on the sun; and since the earth is, in respect to so distant a body as Saturn, very near the sun, these appearances are presented to us nearly in the same manner as though we viewed them from the sun. Accordingly, we sometimes see Saturn's ring under the form of a broad ellipse, which grows continually more and more acute, until it pa.s.ses into a line, and we either lose sight of it, altogether, or, by the aid of the most powerful telescopes, we see it as a fine thread of light drawn across the disk, and projecting out from it on each side. As the whole revolution occupies thirty years, and the edge is presented to the sun twice in the revolution, this last phenomenon, namely, the disappearance of the ring, takes place every fifteen years.

[Ill.u.s.tration Fig. 61.]

You may perhaps gain a still clearer idea of the foregoing appearances from the following diagram, Fig. 61. Let A, B, C, &c., represent successive positions of Saturn and his ring, in different parts of his...o...b..t, while _a b_ represents the orbit of the earth. Please to remark, that these orbits are drawn so elliptical, not to represent the eccentricity of either the earth's or Saturn's...o...b..t, but merely as the projection of circles seen very obliquely. Also, imagine one half of the body of the planet and of the ring to be above the plane of the paper, and the other half below it. Were the ring, when at C and G, perpendicular to C G, it would be seen by a spectator situated at _a_ or _b_ as a perfect circle; but being inclined to the line of vision twenty-eight degrees four minutes, it is projected into an ellipse. This ellipse contracts in breadth as the ring pa.s.ses towards its nodes at A and E, where it dwindles into a straight line. From E to G the ring opens again, becomes broadest at G, and again contracts, till it becomes a straight line at A, and from this point expands, till it recovers its original breadth at C. These successive appearances are all exhibited to a telescope of moderate powers.

The ring is extremely _thin_, since the smallest satellite, when projected on it, more than covers it. The thickness is estimated at only one hundred miles. Saturn's ring shines wholly by _reflected light_ derived from the sun. This is evident from the fact that that side only which is turned towards the sun is enlightened; and it is remarkable, that the illumination of the ring is greater than that of the planet itself, but the outer ring is less bright than the inner. Although we view Saturn's ring nearly as though we saw it from the sun, yet the plane of the ring produced may pa.s.s between the earth and the sun, in which case, also, the ring becomes invisible, the illuminated side being wholly turned from us. Thus, when the ring is approaching its node at E, a spectator at _a_ would have the dark side of the ring presented to him. The ring was invisible in 1833, and will be invisible again in 1847. The northern side of the ring will be in sight until 1855, when the southern side will come into view. It appears, therefore, that there are three causes for the disappearance of Saturn's ring: first, when the edge of the ring is presented to the sun; secondly, when the edge is presented to the earth; and thirdly, when the unilluminated side is towards the earth.

Saturn's ring _revolves_ in its own plane in about ten and a half hours.

La Place inferred this from the doctrine of universal gravitation. He proved that such a rotation was necessary; otherwise, the matter of which the ring is composed would be precipitated upon its primary. He showed that, in order to sustain itself, its period of rotation must be equal to the time of revolution of a satellite, circulating around Saturn at a distance from it equal to that of the middle of the ring, which period would be about ten and a half hours. By means of spots in the ring, Dr. Herschel followed the ring in its rotation, and actually found its period to be the same as a.s.signed by La Place,--a coincidence which beautifully exemplifies the harmony of truth.

Although the rings have very nearly the same centre with the planet itself, yet, recent measurements of extreme delicacy have demonstrated, that the coincidence is not mathematically exact, but that the centre of gravity of the rings describes around that of the body a very minute orbit. "This fact," says Sir J. Herschel, "unimportant as it may seem, is of the utmost consequence to the stability of the system of rings.

Supposing them mathematically perfect in their circular form, and exactly concentric with the planet, it is demonstrable that they would form (in spite of their centrifugal force) a system in a state of unstable equilibrium, which the slightest external power would subvert, not by causing a rupture in the substance of the rings, but by precipitating them unbroken upon the surface of the planet." The ring may be supposed of an unequal breadth in its different parts, and as consisting of irregular solids, whose common centre of gravity does not coincide with the centre of the figure. Were it not for this distribution of matter, its equilibrium would be destroyed by the slightest force, such as the attraction of a satellite, and the ring would finally precipitate itself upon the planet. Sir J. Herschel further observes, that, "as the smallest difference of velocity between the planet and its rings must infallibly precipitate the rings upon the planet, never more to separate, it follows, either that their motions in their common orbit round the sun must have been adjusted to each other by an external power, with the minutest precision, or that the rings must have been formed about the planet while subject to their common orbitual motion, and under the full and free influence of all the acting forces.

"The rings of Saturn must present a magnificent spectacle from those regions of the planet which lie on their enlightened sides, appearing as vast arches spanning the sky from horizon to horizon, and holding an invariable situation among the stars. On the other hand, in the region beneath the dark side, a solar eclipse of fifteen years in duration, under their shadow, must afford (to our ideas) an inhospitable abode to animated beings, but ill compensated by the full light of its satellites. But we shall do wrong to judge of the fitness or unfitness of their condition, from what we see around us, when, perhaps, the very combinations which convey to our minds only images of horror, may be in reality theatres of the most striking and glorious displays of beneficent contrivance."

Saturn is attended by _seven satellites_. Although they are bodies of considerable size, their great distance prevents their being visible to any telescope but such as afford a strong light and high magnifying powers. The outermost satellite is distant from the planet more than thirty times the planet's diameter, and is by far the largest of the whole. It exhibits, like the satellites of Jupiter, periodic variations of light, which prove its revolution on its axis in the time of a sidereal revolution about Saturn, as is the case with our moon, while performing its circuit about the earth. The next satellite in order, proceeding inwards, is tolerably conspicuous; the three next are very minute, and require powerful telescopes to see them; while the two interior satellites, which just skirt the edge of the ring, and move exactly in its plane, have never been discovered but with the most powerful telescopes which human art has yet constructed, and then only under peculiar circ.u.mstances. At the time of the disappearance of the rings, (to ordinary telescopes,) they were seen by Sir William Herschel, with his great telescope, projected along the edge of the ring, and threading, like beads, the thin fibre of light to which the ring is then reduced. Owing to the obliquity of the ring, and of the orbits of the satellites, to that of their primary, there are no eclipses of the satellites, the two interior ones excepted, until near the time when the ring is seen edgewise.