Letters of a Radio-Engineer to His Son Part 15

In adjusting the coupling of the two coils of Fig. 92 we stopped short of allowing the tube circuit to oscillate and to generate a high frequency. If we had gone on increasing the coupling we should have reached a position where steady oscillations would begin. Usually this is marked by a little click in the receiver. The reason is that when the tube oscillates the average current in the plate circuit is not the same as the steady current which ordinarily flows between filament and plate.

There is a sudden change, therefore, in the average current in the plate circuit when the tube starts to oscillate. You remember that what affects the receiver is the average current in the plate circuit. So the receiver diaphragm suddenly changes position as the tube starts to oscillate and a listener hears a little click.

The frequency of the alternating current which the tube produces depends upon the tuned circuit formed by _L_ and _C_. Suppose that this frequency is not the same as that to which the receiving antenna is tuned. What will happen?

There will be impressed on the grid of the tube two alternating e. m.

f.'s, one due to the tube's own oscillations and the other incoming from the distant transmitting station. The two e. m. f. 's are both active at once so that at each instant the e. m. f. of the grid is really the sum of these two e. m. f.'s. Suppose at some instant both e. m.

f.'s are acting to make the grid positive. A little later one of them will be trying to make the grid negative while the other is still trying to make it positive. And later still when the first e. m. f. is ready again to make the grid positive the second will be trying to make it negative.

It's like two men walking along together but with different lengths of step. Even if they start together with their left feet they are soon so completely out of step that one is putting down his right foot while the other is putting down his left. A little later, but just for an instant, they are in step again. And so it goes. They are in step for a moment and then completely out of step. Suppose one of them makes ten steps in the time that the other makes nine. In that time they will be once in step and once completely out of step. If one makes ten steps while the other does eight this will happen twice.

The same thing happens in the audion detector circuit when two e. m.

f.'s which differ slightly in frequency are simultaneously impressed on the grid. If one e. m. f. pa.s.ses through ten complete cycles while the other is making eight cycles, then during that time they will twice be exactly in step, that is, "in phase" as we say. Twice in that time they will be exactly out of step, that is, exactly "opposite in phase." Twice in that time the two e. m. f.'s will aid each other in their effects on the grid and twice they will exactly oppose. Unless they are equal in amplitude there will still be a net e. m. f. even when they are exactly opposed. The result of all this is that the average current in the plate circuit of the detector will alternately increase and decrease twice during this time.

The listener will then hear a note of a frequency equal to the difference between the frequencies of the two e. m. f.'s which are being simultaneously impressed on the grid of the detector. Suppose the incoming signal has a frequency of 100,000 cycles a second but that the detector tube is oscillating in its own circuit at the rate of 99,000 cycles per second, then the listener will hear a note of 1000 cycles per second. One thousand times each second the two e. m. f.'s will be exactly in phase and one thousand times each second they will be exactly opposite in phase. The voltage applied to the grid will be a maximum one thousand times a second and alternately a minimum. We can think of it, then, as if there were impressed on the grid of the detector a high-frequency signal which varied in intensity one thousand times a second. This we know will produce a corresponding variation in the current through the telephone receiver and thus give rise to a musical note of about two octaves above middle _C_ on the piano.

This circuit of Fig. 92 will let us detect signals which are not varying in intensity. And consequently this is the method which we use to detect the telegraph signals which are sent out by such a "continuous wave transmitter" as I showed you at the end of Letter 13.

When the key of a C-W transmitter is depressed there is set up in the distant receiving-antenna an alternating current. This current doesn't vary in strength. It is there as long as the sender has his key down.

Because, however, of the effect which I described above there will be an audible note from the telephone receiver if the detector tube is oscillating at a frequency within two or three thousand cycles of that of the transmitting station.

This method of receiving continuous wave signals is called the "heterodyne" method. The name comes from two Greek words, "dyne" meaning "force" and the other part meaning "different." We receive by combining two different electron-moving-forces, one produced by the distant sending-station and the other produced locally at the receiving station.

Neither by itself will produce any sound, except a click when it starts.

Both together produce a musical sound in the telephone receiver; and the frequency of that note is the difference of the two frequencies.

There are a number of words used to describe this circuit with some of which you should be familiar. It is sometimes called a "feed-back"

circuit because part of the output of the audion is fed back into its input side. More generally it is known as the "regenerative circuit"

because the tube keeps on generating an alternating current. The little coil which is used to feed back into the grid circuit some of the effects from the plate circuit is sometimes called a "tickler" coil.

It is not necessary to use a grid condenser in a feed-back circuit but it is perhaps the usual method of detecting where the regenerative circuit is used. The whole value of the regenerative circuit so far as receiving is concerned is in the high efficiency which it permits. One tube can do the work of two.

We can get just as loud signals by using another tube instead of making one do all the work. In the regenerative circuit the tube is performing two jobs at once. It is detecting but it is also amplifying.[9] By "amplifying" we mean making an e. m. f. larger than it is without changing the shape of its picture, that is without changing its "wave form."

To show just what we mean by amplifying we must look again at the audion and see how it acts. You know that a change in the grid potential makes a change in the plate current. Let us arrange an audion in a circuit which will tell us a little more of what happens. Fig. 93 shows the circuit.

This circuit is the same as we used to find the audion characteristic except that there is a clip for varying the number of batteries in the plate circuit and a voltmeter for measuring their e. m. f. We start with the grid at zero potential and the usual number of batteries in the plate circuit. The voltmeter tells us the e. m. f. We read the ammeter in the plate circuit and note what that current is. Then we shift the slider in the grid circuit so as to give the grid a small potential. The current in the plate circuit changes. We can now move the clip on the B-batteries so as to bring the current in this circuit back to its original value. Of course, if we make the grid positive we move the clip so as to use fewer cells of the B-battery. On the other hand if we make the grid negative we shall need more e. m. f. in the plate circuit. In either case we shall find that we need to make a very much larger change in the voltage of the plate circuit than we have made in the voltage of the grid circuit.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig 93]

Usually we perform the experiment a little differently so as to get more accurate results. We read the voltmeter in the plate circuit and the ammeter in that circuit. Then we change the number of batteries which we are using in the plate circuit. That changes the plate current. The next step is to shift the slider in the grid circuit until we have again the original value of current in the plate circuit. Suppose that the tube is ordinarily run with a plate voltage of 40 volts and we start with that e. m. f. on the plate. Suppose that we now make it 50 volts and then vary the position of the slider in the grid circuit until the ammeter reads as it did at the start. Next we read the voltage impressed on the grid by reading the voltmeter in the grid circuit. Suppose it reads 2 volts. What does that mean?

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig 94]

It means that two volts in the grid circuit have the same effect on the plate current as ten volts in the plate circuit. If we apply a volt to the grid circuit we get five times as large an effect in the plate circuit as we would if the volt were applied there. We get a greater effect, the effect of more volts, by applying our voltage to the grid.

We say that the tube acts as an "amplifier of voltage" because we can get a larger effect than the number of volts which we apply would ordinarily ent.i.tle us to.

Now let's take a simple case of the use of an audion as an amplifier.

Suppose we have a receiving circuit with which we find that the signals are not easily understood because they are too weak. Let this be the receiving circuit of Fig. 88 which I am reproducing here as part of Fig.

94.

We have replaced the telephone receiver by a "transformer." A transformer is two coils, or windings, coupled together. An alternating current in one will give rise to an alternating current in the other.

You are already familiar with the idea but this is our first use of the word. Usually we call the first coil, that is the one through which the alternating current flows, the "primary" and the second coil, in which a current is induced, the "secondary."

The secondary of this transformer is connected to the grid circuit of another vacuum tube, to the plate circuit of which is connected another transformer and the telephone receiver. The result is a detector and "one stage of amplification."

The primary of the first transformer, so we shall suppose, has in it the same current as would have been in the telephone. This alternating current induces in the secondary an e. m. f. which has the same variations as this current. This e. m. f. acts on the grid of the second tube, that is on the amplifier. Because the audion amplifies, the e. m.

f. acting on the telephone receiver is larger than it would have been without the use of this audion. And hence there is a greater response on the part of its diaphragm and a louder sound.

In setting up such a circuit as this there are several things to watch.

For some of these you will have to rely on the dealer from whom you buy your supplies and for the others upon yourself. But it will take another letter to tell you of the proper precautions in using an audion as an amplifier.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig 95]

In the circuit which I have just described an audion is used to amplify the current which comes from the detector before it reaches the telephone receiver. Sometimes we use an audion to amplify the e. m. f.

of the signal before impressing it upon the grid of the detector. Fig.

95 shows a circuit for doing that. In the case of Fig. 94 we are amplifying the audio-frequency current. In that of Fig. 95 it is the radio-frequency effect which is amplified. The feed-back or regenerative circuit of Fig. 92 is a one-tube circuit for doing the same thing as is done with two tubes in Fig 95.

[Footnote 9: There is always some amplification taking place in an audion detector but the regenerative circuit amplifies over and over again until the signal is as large as the tube can detect.]

LETTER 19

THE AUDION AMPLIFIER AND ITS CONNECTIONS

DEAR SON:

In our use of the audion we form three circuits. The first or A-circuit includes the filament. The B-circuit includes the part of the tube between filament and plate. The C-circuit includes the part between filament and grid. We sometimes speak of the C-circuit as the "input"

circuit and the B-circuit as the "output" circuit of the tube. This is because we can put into the grid-filament terminals an e. m. f. and obtain from the plate-filament circuit an effect in the form of a change of current.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig 96]

Suppose we had concealed in a box the audion and circuit of Fig. 96 and that only the terminals which are shown came through the box. We are given a battery and an ammeter and asked to find out all we can as to what is between the terminals _F_ and _G_. We connect the battery and ammeter in series with these terminals. No current flows through the circuit. We reverse the battery but no current flows in the opposite direction. Then we reason that there is an open-circuit between _F_ and _G_.

As long as we do not use a higher voltage than that of the C-battery which is in the box no current can flow. Even if we do use a higher voltage than the "negative C-battery" of the hidden grid-circuit there will be a current only when the external battery is connected so as to make the grid positive with respect to the filament.

Now suppose we take several cells of battery and try in the same way to find what is hidden between the terminals _P_ and _F_. We start with one battery and the ammeter as before and find that if this battery is connected so as to make _P_ positive with respect to _F_, there is a feeble current. We increase the battery and find that the current is increased. Two cells, however, do not give exactly twice the current that one cell does, nor do three give three times as much. The current does not increase proportionately to the applied voltage. Therefore we reason that whatever is between _P_ and _F_ acts like a resistance but not like a wire resistance.

Then, we try another experiment with this hidden audion. We connect a battery to _G_ and _F_, and note what effect it has on the current which our other battery is sending through the box between _P_ and _F_. There is a change of current in this circuit, just as if our act of connecting a battery to _G-F_ had resulted in connecting a battery in series with the _P-F_ circuit. The effect is exactly as if there is inside the box a battery which is connected into the hidden part of the circuit _P-F_. This concealed battery, which now starts to act, appears to be several times stronger than the battery which is connected to _G-F_.

Sometimes this hidden battery helps the B-battery which is on the outside; and sometimes it seems to oppose, for the current in the _P-F_ circuit either increases or decreases, depending upon how we connect the battery to _G_ and _F_. The hidden battery is always larger than our battery connected to _G_ and _F_. If we arrange rapidly to reverse the battery connected to _G-F_ it appears as if there is inside the box in the _P-F_ circuit an alternator, that is, something which can produce an alternating e. m. f.

All this, of course, is merely a review statement of what we already know. These experiments are interesting, however, because they follow somewhat those which were performed in studying the audion and finding out how to make it do all the wonderful things which it now can.

As far as we have carried our series of experiments the box might contain two separate circuits. One between _G_ and _F_ appears to be an open circuit. The other appears to have in it a resistance and a battery (or else an alternator). The e. m. f. of the battery, or alternator, as the case may be, depends on what source of e. m. f. is connected to _G-F_. Whatever that e. m. f. is, there is a corresponding kind of e. m. f. inside the box but one several times larger.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig 97]