Japan Part 1

j.a.pan.

by David Murray.

PREFACE.

It is the object of this book to trace the story of j.a.pan from its beginnings to the establishment of const.i.tutional government. Concerned as this story is with the period of vague and legendary antiquity as well as with the disorders of mediaeval time and with centuries of seclusion, it is plain that it is not an easy task to present a trustworthy and connected account of the momentous changes through which the empire has been called to pa.s.s. It would be impossible to state in detail the sources from which I have derived the material for this work. I place first and as most important a residence of several years in j.a.pan, during which I became familiar with the character of the j.a.panese people and with the traditions and events of their history. Most of the works treating of j.a.pan during and prior to the period of her seclusion, as well as the more recent works, I have had occasion to consult. They will be found referred to in the following pages. Beyond all others, however, I desire to acknowledge my obligations to the _Transactions of the Asiatic Society of j.a.pan_. A list of the contributors to these transactions would include such names as Satow, Aston, Chamberlain, McClatchie, Gubbins, Geerts, Milne, Whitney, Wigmore and others, whose investigations have made possible a reasonably complete knowledge of j.a.pan. The _Transactions of the German Asiatic Society_ are scarcely less noteworthy than those of her sister society. To these invaluable sources of information are to be added Chamberlain's _Things j.a.panese_, Rein's _j.a.pan_ and the _Industries of j.a.pan_, Griffis'

_Mikado's Empire_, Mounsey's _Satsuma Rebellion_, Dening's _Life of Hideyoshi_, the published papers of Professor E. S. Morse, and the two handbooks prepared successively by Mr. Satow and Mr. Chamberlain.

To friends who have taken an interest in this publication I owe many thanks for valuable and timely help: to Dr. J. C. Hepburn, who for so many years was a resident in Yokohama; to Mr. Benjamin Smith Lyman of Philadelphia who still retains his interest in and knowledge of things j.a.panese; to Mr. Tateno, the j.a.panese Minister at Washington, and to the departments of the j.a.panese government which have furnished me material a.s.sistance.

In the spelling of j.a.panese words I have followed, with a few exceptions, the system of the Roman Alphabet a.s.sociation (Romaji Kai) as given in its published statement. I have also had constantly at hand Hepburn's _Dictionary_, the _Dictionary of Towns and Roads_, by Dr. W. N. Whitney, and _Murray's Handbook of j.a.pan_, by B. H. Chamberlain. In accordance with these authorities, in the p.r.o.nunciation of j.a.panese words the consonants are to be taken at their usual English values and the vowels at their values in Italian or German.

DAVID MURRAY.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

Bell At Kyoto

CHAPTER I. THE j.a.pANESE ARCHIPELAGO.

The first knowledge of the j.a.panese empire was brought to Europe by Marco Polo after his return from his travels in China in A.D. 1295. He had been told in China of "Chipangu,(1) an island towards the east in the high seas, 1500 miles from the continent; and a very great island it is. The people are white, civilized, and well favored. They are idolaters, and are dependent on n.o.body. And I can tell you the quant.i.ty of gold they have is endless; for they find it in their own islands." The name Chipangu is the transliteration of the Chinese name which modern scholars write Chi-pen-kue, by which j.a.pan was then known in China. From it the j.a.panese derived the name Nippon, and then prefixed the term Dai (great), making it Dai Nippon, the name which is now used by them to designate their empire.

Europeans transformed the Chinese name into j.a.pan, or j.a.pon, by which the country is known among them at present.

Marco Polo's mention of this island produced a great impression on the discoverers of the fifteenth century. In Toscanelli's map, used by Columbus as the basis of his voyages, "c.i.p.ango" occupies a prominent place to the east of Asia, with no American continent between it and Europe. It was the aim of Columbus, and of many subsequent explorers, to find a route to this reputedly rich island and to the eastern sh.o.r.es of Asia.

The islands composing the empire of j.a.pan are situated in the northwestern part of the Pacific ocean. They are part of the long line of volcanic islands stretching from the peninsula of Kamtschatka on the north to Formosa on the south. The direction in which they lie is northeast and southwest, and in a general way they are parallel to the continent.

The lat.i.tude of the most northern point of Yezo is 45 35', and the lat.i.tude of the most southern point of Kyushu is 31. The longitude of the most eastern point of Yezo is 146 17', and the longitude of the most western point of Kyushu is 130 31'. The four princ.i.p.al islands therefore extend through 14 35' of lat.i.tude and 15 46' of longitude.

The Kurile islands(2) extending from Yezo northeast to the straits separating Kamtschatka from the island of Shumushu belong also to j.a.pan.

This last island has a lat.i.tude of 51 5' and a longitude of 157 10'. In like manner the Ryukyu islands, lying in a southwest direction from Kyushu belong to j.a.pan. The most distant island has a lat.i.tude of 24 and a longitude of 123 45'. The whole j.a.panese possessions therefore extend through a lat.i.tude of 27 5' and a longitude of 33 25'.

The empire consists of four large islands and not less than three thousand small ones. Some of these small islands are large enough to const.i.tute distinct provinces, but the greater part are too small to have a separate political existence, and are attached for administrative purposes to the parts of the large islands opposite to which they lie. The princ.i.p.al island is situated between Yezo on the north and Kyushu on the south.

From Omasaki, the northern extremity at the Tsugaru straits, to Tokyo, the capital, the island runs nearly north and south a distance of about 590 miles, and from Tokyo to the Shimonoseki straits the greatest extension of the island is nearly east and west, a distance of about 540 miles. That is, measuring in the direction of the greatest extension, the island is about 1130 miles long. The width of the island is nowhere greater than two hundred miles and for much of its length not more than one hundred miles.

Among the j.a.panese this island has no separate name.(3) It is often called by them Hondo(4) which may be translated Main island. By this translated name the princ.i.p.al island will be designated in these pages. The term Nippon or more frequently Dai Nippon (Great Nippon) is used by them to designate the entire empire, and it is not to be understood as restricted to the princ.i.p.al island.

The second largest island is Yezo, lying northeast from the Main island and separated from it by the Tsugaru straits. Its longest line is from Cape Shiretoko at its northeast extremity to Cape Shira-kami on Tsugaru straits, about 350 miles; and from its northern point, Cape Soya on the La Perouse straits to Yerimosaki, it measures about 270 miles. The centre of the island is an elevated peak, from which rivers flow in all directions to the ocean. Hakodate the princ.i.p.al port is situated on Tsugaru straits and possesses one of the most commodious harbors of the empire.

The third in size of the great islands of j.a.pan is Kyushu, a name meaning nine provinces, referring to the manner in which it was divided in early times. It lies south from the western extremity of the Main island. Its greatest extension is from north to south, being about 200 miles. Its width from east to west varies from sixty to ninety miles. Its temperature and products partake of a tropical character.

To the east of Kyushu lies Shikoku (meaning four provinces) which is the fourth of the great islands of j.a.pan. It is about one half as large as Kyushu, which in climate and productions it much resembles. It is south of the western extension of the Main island and is nearly parallel to it. Its length is about 170 miles.

In the early history of j.a.pan one of its names among the natives was Oyashima, meaning the Great Eight Islands. The islands included in this name were: the Main island, Kyushu, Shikoku, Awaji, Sado, Tsushima, Oki, and Iki. The large island of Yezo had not then been conquered and added to the empire.

Awaji is situated in the Inland sea between the Main island and Shikoku.

It is about fifty miles long and has an area of 218 square miles. Sado is situated in the j.a.pan sea, off the northwest coast of the Main island. It is about forty-eight miles long and has an area of about 335 square miles.

Tsushima lies half-way between j.a.pan and Korea, and has a length of about forty-six miles, and an area of about 262 square miles. Oki lies off the coast of Izumo and has an area of about 130 square miles. Finally Iki, the smallest of the original great eight islands, lies west of the northern extremity of Kyushu and has an area of fifty square miles.

The j.a.panese islands are invested on the east by the Pacific ocean. They are separated from the continent by the Okhotsk sea, the j.a.pan sea, and the Yellow sea. The Kuro Shiwo (black current) flows from the tropical waters in a northeast direction, skirting the islands of j.a.pan on their east coasts, and deflecting its course to the eastward carries its ameliorating influences to the west coast of America. It is divided by the projecting southern extremity of the island of Kyushu, and a perceptible portion of it flows on the west coast of the j.a.panese islands through the j.a.pan sea and out again into the Pacific ocean through the Tsugaru and the La Perouse straits. The effect of the Kuro Shiwo upon the climate and productions of the lands along which it flows is not greatly different from that of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic ocean, which in situation, direction, and volume it resembles.

The body of water known among foreigners as the Inland sea, but which the j.a.panese call Seto-no-Uchi-Umi (the sea within the straits), is a picturesque sheet of water situated between the Linschoten straits on the east and the Shimonoseki straits on the west. The latter is seven miles long and at its narrowest part not more than two thousand feet wide. It separates Kyushu on the south from the Main island on the north. The Inland sea is occupied by an almost countless number of islands, which bear evidence of volcanic origin, and are covered with luxuriant vegetation. The lines of steamers from Shanghai and Nagasaki to the various ports on the Main island, and numberless smaller craft in every direction, run through the Inland sea.

The princ.i.p.al islands of j.a.pan are interspersed with mountains, hills and valleys. Yezo the most northern of these islands is traversed by two ranges of mountains; the one being the extension of the island of Saghalien, the other the extension of the Kurile islands. These two ranges cross each other at the centre of the island, and here the greatest elevation is to be found. The shape given to the island by these intersecting ranges is that of a four-pointed star. The rivers in nearly all cases flow from the centre outward to the sea. There are few large rivers. The most important is the Ishikari which empties into Ishikari bay. The valley of this river is the most rich and fertile part of the island.

The mountain ranges on the Main island extend usually in the greatest direction of the island. In the northern and central portions the ranges chiefly run north and south. In the western extension of this island the mountain ranges run in nearly an east and west direction. The ordinary height attained by these ranges is not great, but there are many volcanic peaks which rise out of the surrounding ma.s.s to a great elevation. The highest mountain in j.a.pan is Fuji-san (sometimes called Fuji-yama). It is almost conical in shape; although one side has been deformed by a volcanic eruption which occurred in 1707. It stands not far from the coast, and is directly in view from the steamers entering the bay of Tokyo on their way to Yokohama. It is about sixty miles from Tokyo in a direct line, and there are many places in the city from which it can be seen. Its top is covered with snow during ten months of the year, which the heat of August and September melts away. The height of Fuji-san according to the measurement of English naval officers is 12,365 feet.(5)

Next to Fuji-san the mountains most worthy of notice are Gas-san in Uzen, Mitake in Shinano, the Nikko mountains in Shimotsuke, Haku-san in Kaga, Kirishima-yama in Hyuga, and Asama-yama in Shinano. Asama-yama is about 8,000 feet high, and is an active volcano.

From time immemorial the j.a.panese islands have been affected with earthquakes. Occasionally they have been severe and destructive, but usually slight and ineffective. It is said that not less than five hundred shocks(6) occur in j.a.pan each year. The last severe earthquake was in the autumn of 1891, when the central part of the Main island, especially in the neighborhood of Gifu, was destructively disturbed. During the long history of the empire many notable cases(7) have occurred. Mr.

Hattori-Ichijo in a paper read before the Asiatic Society of j.a.pan, March, 1878, has compiled a list of destructive earthquakes, and has deduced from it some important generalizations.

Closely a.s.sociated with earthquakes in j.a.pan as elsewhere are the phenomena of volcanoes. The whole archipelago bears evidence of volcanic formation. The long line of islands stretching from Kamtschatka to Borneo is plainly the product of continued volcanic action. Dr. Rein(8) enumerates eighteen active volcanoes now in existence within the empire.

Fuji-san in all its beauty was no doubt thrown up as a volcano. The last time it was in action was in 1707, when in connection with a series of severe earthquake shocks, an eruption took place on the south side of the mountain, and its symmetrical form was destroyed by the production of the new crater, Hoye-san.

Among the mountainous districts many small lakes are found, a few of which are large enough to be navigated. In Yezo there are six considerable lakes. In the Main island the largest lake is Biwa, in the beautiful mountain region north of Kyoto. It received its name from its fancied resemblance to the shape of a musical instrument called a _biwa_. There is a legend that this lake came into existence in a single night, when the volcanic mountain Fuji-san 300 miles distant was raised to its present height. It is about fifty miles long and about twenty miles broad at its greatest width. It is said to be not less than 330 feet at its greatest depth. It is navigated by steamboats and smaller craft. It is situated about 350 feet above the ocean. Lake Suwa in Shinano is 2,635 feet above the ocean. Lake Chuzenji in the Nikko mountains is 4,400 feet; and Hakone lake near Yokohama is 2,400 feet.

Owing to the narrowness of the Main island, there are no rivers of a large size. Most of them take their rise in the mountainous regions of the middle of the islands, and by a more or less circuitous route find their way to the ocean. The Tone-gawa (_gawa_ means river) is the longest and broadest of the rivers of j.a.pan. It rises in Kotsuke and flows in an eastern direction, receiving many tributaries, attains a breadth of more than a mile, and with a current much narrowed, empties into the Pacific ocean at Choshi point. It is about 170 miles long and is navigated by boats for a great distance. The Shinano-gawa, which may be named as second in size, rises in the province of Shinano, flows in a northern direction, and empties into the j.a.pan sea at Ni-igata. The Kiso-gawa also rises in the high lands of Shinano, and, flowing southward, empties into Owari bay.

The Fuji-kawa(9) takes its rise in the northern part of the province of Kai, and in its course skirting the base of Fuji-san on the west, empties into Suruga bay. It is chiefly notable for being one of the swiftest streams in j.a.pan and liable to sudden and great floods.

To these rivers may be added the Yodo-gawa, which is the outlet of Lake Biwa, in the province of Omi, and which flows through Kyoto, and empties into the Inland sea at Osaka. This river is navigable for flat-bottomed steamboats as far as Kyoto. In the islands of Kyushu and Shikoku there are no large rivers; but there are many streams which give to these islands their richness and fertility.

The climate of j.a.pan, as might be expected from its great stretch from north to south, and the varied circ.u.mstances of ocean currents, winds, and mountains, is very different in the different parts. The lat.i.tude of Tokyo is 35, which is not very different from that of Cyprus in the Mediterranean, or the city of Raleigh in North Carolina. Besides the lat.i.tude of the islands of j.a.pan, the most noticeable cause of their climatic condition is the Kuro Shiwo (black current). This current flows from the tropical regions near the Philippine islands, impinges on the southern islands, and is divided by them into two unequal parts. The greater part skirts the j.a.panese islands on their east coast, imparting to them that warm and moist atmosphere, which is one source of the fertility of their soil and beauty of their vegetation. To this important cause must be added another, which is closely related to it in its effects. The j.a.panese islands are in the region of the north-east monsoon,(10) which affects in a marked degree the climate of all parts over which the winds extend. The same monsoon blows over the eastern countries of the continent, but the insular character of j.a.pan and the proximity of the warm current on both sides of the islands give to the winds which prevail a character which they do not possess on the continent. During the greater part of September the northern wind blows, which brings a colder temperature, condensing the moisture contained in the atmosphere. This month is therefore generally a rainy month. Gradually the atmosphere becomes more dry, and the beautiful autumn and early winter follow in course.

The winter is very different in the different parts. On the east coast the temperature is very moderate. Even as far north as Tokyo the snow rarely falls to a depth of more than a few inches, and then rapidly melts away.

Ice seldom forms to a thickness, even on protected waters, to permit skating. In all this region, however, snow covers the high mountains.

On the west coast of the Main island the conditions are very different.

The winds of the continent take up the moisture of the j.a.pan sea, and carry it to the west coast, and then, coming in contact with high ranges of mountains which run down the middle of the island, impart their moisture in the form of rain in summer, and snow in winter. These circ.u.mstances produce extraordinary falls of snow on the west coast. This is particularly true of the provinces of Kaga, Noto, Etchu, Echigo, and even farther north, especially in the mountainous regions. In the northern part of these districts the snow is often as much as twenty feet deep during the winter months. The inhabitants are obliged to live in the second stories of their houses and often find it necessary to make steps from their houses out to the top of the snow. One effect of these deep snows is to cover up with a safe protection the shrubs and tender plants which would otherwise be exposed to the chilling winds of winter. By this means the tea-shrub and the camellia, which could not withstand the open winter winds, are protected so as to grow luxuriantly.

The southern islands are materially warmer than the Main island. The tropical current together with the warm sunshine due to their low lat.i.tude, immerses them in a moist and warm atmosphere. Their productions are of a sub-tropical character. Cotton, rice, tobacco, sugar, sweet potatoes, oranges, yams, and other plants of a warm lat.i.tude, flourish in Kyushu and Shikoku. The high mountains and the well watered valleys, the abundance of forest trees, and wild and luxuriant vegetation,(11) give to these islands an aspect of perennial verdure.

The productions of the Main island are, as might be expected, far more various. In the southern part, especially that part bordering on the Inland sea, the productions are to a large extent similar to those in the southern islands. Rice and cotton are raised in great abundance. Tea flourishes particularly in the provinces near Kyoto and also in the rich valleys of the east coast. Silk-raising is a princ.i.p.al occupation. Nearly one half in value of all the exports from j.a.pan is raw and manufactured silk, and a large part of the remainder is tea. The princ.i.p.al food raised in nearly all the islands is rice. The streams of water which abound everywhere make the irrigation which rice cultivation requires easy and effective. Besides the rice which is raised in paddy land there is also a variety called upland rice. This grows without irrigation but is inferior to the princ.i.p.al variety in productiveness. In the early rituals of the Shinto temples prayers were always offered for the five cereals. These were understood to be rice, millet, barley, beans, and sorghum. All these have been cultivated from early times, and can be successfully raised in almost all parts of the islands. Rice cannot, however, be raised north of the Main island. Millet, barley, and beans are cultivated everywhere, and are the princ.i.p.al articles of food among the country population. Buckwheat is also cultivated in all northern parts. It is believed to have been introduced from Manchuria where it is found growing wild.

The domestic animals of j.a.pan are by no means so abundant as in the corresponding parts of the continent. The horse has existed here from antiquity but was only used for riding or as a pack-horse, but never until recently was used for driving. The cow, owing perhaps to the restrictive influence of the Buddhist doctrines, was never used for food. Even milk, b.u.t.ter, and cheese, which from time immemorial formed such important articles of food throughout Europe and among the nomadic peoples of Asia, were never used. Sheep are almost unknown even to this day, and where they have been introduced it is only in very recent times and by foreign enterprise. Goats are sometimes but not commonly found. On the island of Oshima,(12) off the province of Izu, they had multiplied to so great an extent and were so destructive to vegetation that about 1850 the inhabitants combined to extirpate them. Swine are found in the Ryukyu islands, where they had been brought from China and they are found only incidentally in other places when introduced by foreigners. Dogs and cats and barnyard fowl are found in all the islands.

Wild animals are only moderately abundant, as is natural in a country so thickly inhabited. The black bear is found frequently in the well-wooded mountains of Yezo and the northern part of the Main island. The great bear, called also by the j.a.panese the red bear, and which is the same as the grizzly bear of North America, is also common in the Kurile islands and in Yezo. The wolf is sometimes found and the fox is common. The superst.i.tions concerning the fox are as remarkable as those in the north of Europe, and have doubtless prevented its destruction. Deer are found in abundance in almost all parts of the islands. They are, however, most common in Yezo where immense herds feed upon the plentiful herbage.

The waters around j.a.pan abound in fish. The coast is indented by bays and inlets which give opportunity for fishing. The warm currents flowing past the islands bring a great variety of fish which otherwise would not reach these islands. By far the most common article of food, other than vegetable, is the fish of various kinds and the sh.e.l.l-fish which are caught on the coasts and carried inland to almost all parts.

The division of the empire into provinces (_kuni_) was an important step in practical administration, and it is often referred to in these pages.