Area 51 Part 13

4. "relinquished for 20,000 years": Operation Plumbbob, Summary Report, Test Group 57, Nevada Test Site, Extracted Version, MayOctober 1957, ITR-1515 (Extracted Version), 17.

5. "no preexisting contamination" "no preexisting contamination": Minutes, First General Meeting, the 57 Project, January 18, 1957, at Sandia Corporation, Red. Sym 5112-(127), decla.s.sified 8/9/83.

6. "a safety test" "a safety test": Memo dated April 2, 1957, LAV-57-33 Atomic Energy Commission, Las Vegas Branch, Office of the Branch Chief; also see Safety Experiments, November 1955March 1958, Defense Nuclear Agency, United States Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Tests, Nuclear Test Personnel Review, Report Number DNA 6030.

7. dispute was over eight dead cows dispute was over eight dead cows: The University of Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station, Knoxville, November 30, 1953, #404942, Stewart Brothers, Las Vegas, Nevada. Through courtesy of Joe Sanders of AEC, 15.

8. The commission had paid the Stewarts The commission had paid the Stewarts: Memo to Dr. W. S. Johnson, Section Leader, Test Operations Section, University of California, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, October 20, 1953, #4049641.

9. aerial inspection of Groom Lake aerial inspection of Groom Lake: Col. E. A. Blue, DMA/AEC; J. D. Shreve Jr., SC, W. Allaire (ALO), M. Cowan (SC) all inspected the area from the air on a special flight prior to January 18.

10. "60 to 80 cattle who hadn't gotten the word" "60 to 80 cattle who hadn't gotten the word": Minutes, First General Meeting, the 57 Project, January 18, 1957, at Sandia Corporation, Red. Sym 5112-(127), 3.

11. excluded from official Nevada Test Site maps excluded from official Nevada Test Site maps: Ref. Sym 5112-(127) Appendix A, Administrative Committee Report, J. D. Shreve Jr., Sandia Corporation (seven pages, no date). "It remains undecided whether Area 13 is considered on-site or off-site so far as NTS is concerned... This is very important to rule on soon." Ultimately, it was decided to exclude exclude Area 13 from all maps and it remains this way on decla.s.sified maps today because Area 13 lies inside Area 51. Denoting it on a map would lead to questions that the Atomic Energy Commission does not want asked. Area 13 from all maps and it remains this way on decla.s.sified maps today because Area 13 lies inside Area 51. Denoting it on a map would lead to questions that the Atomic Energy Commission does not want asked.

12. nuclear warhead was flown nuclear warhead was flown: Ibid., 6. "It will be requested that weapon be flown to Yucca Lake air strip March 15, transferred to Building 11 for storage awaiting ready date for the shot. Checkout would be done in Building 10 and the unit moved from there to Area 13 (requested designation for site) for firing."

13. Richard Mingus was tired Richard Mingus was tired: Interviews with Richard Mingus.

14. America's first dirty bomb America's first dirty bomb: Operation Plumbbob, Summary Report, Test Group 57, Nevada Test Site, Extracted Version, MayOctober 1957, ITR-1515 (Extracted Version), 85 pages.

15. Pacific Proving Ground Pacific Proving Ground: General information comes from Buck, History of the Atomic Energy Commission; History of the Atomic Energy Commission; O'Keefe, O'Keefe, Nuclear Hostages; Nuclear Hostages; Fehner and Gosling, Fehner and Gosling, Battlefield of the Cold War. Battlefield of the Cold War.

16. made its zigzag course made its zigzag course: Fehner and Gosling, Origins of the Nevada Test Site, Origins of the Nevada Test Site, 39. 39.

17. arguing for an atomic bombing range arguing for an atomic bombing range: Ibid., 4647.

18. Armed Forces Special Weapons Project Armed Forces Special Weapons Project: "History of the Air Force Special Weapons Center 1 January30 June 1957." Department of Defense, DNA 1. 950210.019, decla.s.sified with deletions 2/2/95.

19. code-named Project Nutmeg code-named Project Nutmeg: Bugher, Review of Project Nutmeg, Review of Project Nutmeg, #404131. #404131.

20. "The optimum conditions": Fehner and Gosling, Battlefield of the Cold War, Battlefield of the Cold War, 37. 37.

21. the goal of fostering compet.i.tion the goal of fostering compet.i.tion: Interview with Dr. Bud Wheelon; also see Nevada Test Organization, Background Information on Nevada Nuclear Tests, Office of Test Information, July 15, 1957, #403243, 25.

22. most ambitious series most ambitious series: Plumbbob Series 1957, Technical Report, Defense Nuclear Agency 6005F, DARE Tracking 48584, 6075.

23. Delta, nothing more Delta, nothing more: Interview with Richard Mingus.

24. scientists really had no clear idea scientists really had no clear idea: Safety Experiments, November 1955March 1958, Defense Nuclear Agency, United States Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Tests, Nuclear Test Personnel Review, Report Number DNA 6030.

25. Workers set up Workers set up: Ref. Sym 5112-(127) Appendix B, Particle Physics Committee Report, M. Cowan, Sandia Corporation Presiding (nine pages, no date). This doc.u.ment refers to various objectives of the particle physics program, an "experimental approach" to fallout collection, "balloon born precipitators," air samplers on the ground, collection of fallout trays. It described how "some small plywood shacks with open windows and doors will be constructed in the fallout array. Air and surface contamination levels will be measured within the structures and compared to readings on the outside."

26. "stocked with radiation equipment and protective clothing": Plumbbob Series 1957, Technical Report, Defense Nuclear Agency 6005F, DARE Tracking 48584, 60-75, 316.

27. Mother Nature's emissary Mother Nature's emissary: Interviews with Richard Mingus and Al O'Donnell, who introduced me to Mueller's widow.

28. Project 57 balloons broke loose Project 57 balloons broke loose: Telex TWX 01A 2008242, From Reeves Attention Gen AD Starbird, 1957 Apr 20 AM 3:39; also see "Feasibility of Weapon Delivery By Free Balloons," OSTI ID: 10150708; Legacy ID: DE98056381, 34 pages.

29. hand-fired by an employee from EG&G hand-fired by an employee from EG&G: Operation Plumbbob, Summary Report, Test Group 57, Nevada Test Site, Extracted Version, MayOctober 1957, ITR-1515 (EX). Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, NM, October 10, 1958. "At 0350 PST. April 24, a surface charge of 110 pounds of stick dynamite was fired 1,000 feet east of Zone C (as position 42-61) to verify predictions of cloud height. Timing and firing circuits were the ultimate in simplicity; the weapon was hand fired by EG&G at the Test Group Director's instruction."

30. fallout was to the north fallout was to the north: Ibid., 55 (6.1., Weather Observations). The weather was meticulously recorded, which is ironic given how "fast and loose" everything else was running out at the test site, as stated by an EG&G employee who also worked as a liaison to the Pentagon. "April 10, 1957. Hodographs during the period 2100 to 2330 PST showed that satisfactory conditions existed at 2100 PST, but a recommendation for cancellation was made after the wind shifted to northwest on the 2300 PST soundings. April 1F, [sic] 1957. Satisfactory wind conditions existed at 0441 PST, but the morning inversion broke more quickly than expected. By 0530 PST, winds were too strong and the shear had disappeared, forcing cancellation. April 20, 1957, Intermittent light showers began at 2330 PST on the 19th and continued through the remainder of the night and following morning. Hodographs indicated that satisfactory winds existed during this period, but moisture on the instrumentation forced cancellation. April 24, 1957. Scattered middle clouds were observed and a moderate dew formed during the night. The sequence of wind changes from 0415 to 0756 is shown by the hodographs. The shot was fired at 0627 PST."

31. The bomb was indeed dirty The bomb was indeed dirty: In June of 1982, Sandia Corporation produced an extracted 102-page report on the results of its dirty bomb or plutonium-contamination effects study on Project 57 for the director of the Defense Nuclear Agency, in lieu of a proposed cleanup of Area 13 (see chapter 18). Information in this chapter comes from portions of that extracted study. The stated objectives of the project "were to estimate the immediate and long-term distribution of plutonium and gain an understanding of how this distribution comes about, to conduct a biomedical evaluation of plutonium-laden environments, to investigate relevant methods of decontamination, and to evaluate alpha field survey instruments and monitoring procedures." And yet Area 13 soil decontamination was not even considered for twenty-five years.

32. "extract" of the original report "extract" of the original report: The full, still-cla.s.sified doc.u.ment, originally prepared by Sandia Corporation in Albuquerque, New Mexico, in October of 1958, is called ITR-1515.

33. "the alpha half-life of plutonium-239": Ibid., 17 ("Motivation and Mission, 1.1 Historical Resume"). The text reads: "once in the stomach, their stay in the body is short, for they are excreted as an inert material with virtually no body a.s.similation. Inhalation is a different mechanism entirely and one which presents a considerable threat. Any particle small enough to reach the lower respiratory tract apparently has an excellent chance of clinging to alveolar surfaces and staying to do radiation damage... One cannot outlive the influence, because the alpha half life of plutonium-239 is of the order of 20,000 years."

34. "respirable plutonium remarkably far downwind": Ibid., 7 ("Foreword, Abstract").

35. "earthworms moved 18 tons of soil": Ibid., 101 (8.6, "A New Program"). "Finally, Dr. Kermit Larson agreed to exploit an idea which grew out of discussions among partic.i.p.ants in the anniversary measurements-earthworms. Compton's Encyclopedia reports that the renowned Charles Darwin studied an acre of garden in which he claimed 53,000 hard-working earthworms moved 18 tons of soil. Translocation of soil, the possibility that earthworm body chemistry may vary plutonium form, etc., could turn out to be significant influences, intentional or unintentional, in the rehabilitation of a weapon-accident environment."

36. Pauling said Pauling said: The quotes in this two-page section, and also the newspaper quotes here here, are from the extensive newspaper archive collection located in the Atomic Testing Museum library reading room in Las Vegas, Nevada.

37. The Pentagon wondered The Pentagon wondered: Fehner and Gosling, Battlefield of the Cold War, Battlefield of the Cold War, 15982. 15982.

38. caused Area 51 personnel caused Area 51 personnel: Interview with Richard Mingus.

39. "the Indoctrination Project: DNA 6005F, Plumbbob Series 1957, United States Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Tests, Nuclear Test Personnel Review, Chapter 4, Exercise Desert Rock VII and VIII Programs, 81, 96.

40. Committee on Human Resources Committee on Human Resources: Memorandum, Members of the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, September 8, 1994, "Human Experiments in Connection with the Atomic Bomb Tests," attachment 5, item 10.

41. "mythical attack by an aggressor force": During the Hood nuclear bomb, the Marine Corps conducted coordinated air-ground a.s.sault maneuvers that included helicopter airlifts and tactical air support; "Exercise Desert Rock VII-VIII, Operation Plumbbob," Defense Nuclear Agency 4747F.

42. Mingus saw that a large swath of the desert was on fire Mingus saw that a large swath of the desert was on fire: Interview with Mingus.

43. Area 51 had become uninhabitable Area 51 had become uninhabitable: Interview with Richard Mingus; also Office Memorandum, United States Government, Observed Damage at Watertown, Nevada, following the Sixth Nuclear shot of Plumbbob, July 9, 1957. R. A. Gilmore, Off-Site Rad-Safe, NTO, #0150371.

Chapter Seven: From Ghost Town to Boomtown.

Interviews: T. D. Barnes, Peter Merlin, Al O'Donnell, Richard Mingus, Jim Freedman, Ed Lovick, Tony Bevacqua, Ray Goudey, Ernie Williams, Harry Martin, Colonel Slater, Frank Murray 1. measuring fallout with Geiger counters in hand measuring fallout with Geiger counters in hand: Interview with T. D. Barnes; Operation Plumbbob Projects and Reports: Program 2, Project 2.2., Neutron Induced Activities in Soil Elements WT-1411; Project 2.5 Initial Gamma Radiation Intensity and Neutron-Induced Gamma Radiation of NTS Soil WT-1414.

2. dressed in white lab coats and work boots dressed in white lab coats and work boots: Photographs viewed at the Atomic Testing Museum library, Las Vegas.

3. from pinhead particles to pencil-size pieces of steel from pinhead particles to pencil-size pieces of steel: DNA 6005F, Plumbbob Series 1957, United States Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Tests, Nuclear Test Personnel Review, Chapter 4, Exercise Desert Rock VII and VIII Programs, Civil Effects Test Group, Fallout Studies, 204-247; AEC Research and Development Report BNWL-481-1, 113 pages.

4. surprise of the nuclear scientists surprise of the nuclear scientists: McPhee, Curve of Binding Energy, Curve of Binding Energy, 16667. 16667.

5. could locate them with magnets could locate them with magnets: Roadrunners Internationale newsletter, August 1, 2009, 34th edition. From the personal diary of Dan Sheahan, owner and operator of the Groom Mine, provided to the Roadrunners Internationale by his great-granddaughter Lisa Heawood.

6. weapons planners moved ahead weapons planners moved ahead: Interviews with Al O'Donnell, Richard Mingus, and Jim Freedman. There was a nuclear test ban moratorium on the horizon, which meant that all weapons tests were scheduled to end on October 31, 1958. At the test site, weapons engineers worked at a frenzied pace to finish as many nuclear tests as they could before the deadline.

7. the animals observed the animals observed: An anonymous eyewitness related to me the horror of watching a dying horse seek water at Area 51. The AEC has never decla.s.sified its animal observations, which I understand are extensive. In an AEC doc.u.ment released to the public on July 15, 1957, ent.i.tled "Responsibility for U.S. Nuclear Weapons Programs," in a section called "Operating Controls," it is stated that "cattle and horses grazing within a few miles of the detonation suffered skin deep beta radiation burns on their hides (1952 and 1953 series) with no effect on their breeding value and no effect on the cattle's beef quality. Radiation fallout more than a few miles from detonation has been quite harmless to humans, animals or crops." In The Day We Bombed Utah, The Day We Bombed Utah, John G. Fuller presents the opposite argument. John G. Fuller presents the opposite argument.

8. emergency landing on the former U-2 airstrip emergency landing on the former U-2 airstrip: Interview with Peter Merlin.

9. Edward Lovick was standing on Edward Lovick was standing on: Interview with Edward Lovick.

10. grandfather of stealth grandfather of stealth: Before working on the A-12, Lovick's first job at Skunk Works was to try to reduce the radar reflections being bounced back from the U-2 to the Soviet radar systems. With Area 51 still shuttered from atomic fallout, the physicist's first efforts took place at a remote hangar in the north corner of Edwards Air Force Base in California. There, Lovick and colleagues spent hours coming up with all kinds of antiradar schemes: "It was our job to invent something that would neither compromise the aircraft's height, nor allow its hydraulic system to overheat as had happened with Sieker. Kelly Johnson had a rule: one pound of extra weight applied to the aircraft would reduce its alt.i.tude by one foot. This meant our camouflage coating couldn't exceed a quarter of an inch and had to weigh as little as possible."

11. aircraft would be radically different aircraft would be radically different: Interviews with Ed Lovick, Dr. Wheelon, T. D. Barnes. Other federal agencies were also secretly experimenting with supersonic flight, but not sustained flight at Mach 3. The Air Force, NASA, and the Navy were involved in the experimental X-15, a hypersonic airplane that would lay the groundwork for travel into s.p.a.ce. But the X-15 was boosted off the back of a mother ship, whereas the Agency's new plane would leave the tarmac on its own power and return to the base the same way.

12. twenty-second window twenty-second window: Peebles, Dark Eagles, Dark Eagles, 51. 51.

13. it loses precision and speed it loses precision and speed: Interview with Dr. Wheelon.

14. minutiae involving radar returns minutiae involving radar returns: Jones, The Wizard War. The Wizard War. Lovick spent hours describing for me the fundamental concepts of radar, which is an acronym for radio detection and ranging, which first came into being in 1904 when a German engineer named Christian Hulsmeyer figured out that electromagnetic waves could be used to identify, or "see," a metal ship floating in dense fog. It didn't take long for the military to realize the inherent value of radar as a way to detect large, moving metal objects otherwise invisible to the naked eye. This was especially true for ships and airplanes, two key means of transport in twentieth-century warfare. Lovick spent hours describing for me the fundamental concepts of radar, which is an acronym for radio detection and ranging, which first came into being in 1904 when a German engineer named Christian Hulsmeyer figured out that electromagnetic waves could be used to identify, or "see," a metal ship floating in dense fog. It didn't take long for the military to realize the inherent value of radar as a way to detect large, moving metal objects otherwise invisible to the naked eye. This was especially true for ships and airplanes, two key means of transport in twentieth-century warfare.

15. fourteen-year-old children were doing in 1933 fourteen-year-old children were doing in 1933: Interview with Lovick. By high school, Lovick had created a radio receiver from sc.r.a.p metal, vacuum tubes, and discarded radio parts which enabled him "to detect signals a hundred miles away, which gave me the intense feeling of discovering something that I did not previously have evidence as being there."

16. the Archangel-1 the Archangel-1: Robarge, Archangel, Archangel, 45. 45. Archangel Archangel is a term meaning "an angel of high rank" and it is also a port city in northwestern Russia, home to many Soviet radar stations that would one day be trying to track the A-12. is a term meaning "an angel of high rank" and it is also a port city in northwestern Russia, home to many Soviet radar stations that would one day be trying to track the A-12.

17. fifty Skunk Works employees returned to Area 51 fifty Skunk Works employees returned to Area 51: Ibid., 6.

18. "build a full scale mockup": Johnson, History of the Oxcart Program, History of the Oxcart Program, 5. 5.

19. code-named t.i.tania code-named t.i.tania: United States Nuclear Tests July 1945 through September 1992 DOE/NV209-REV 15, 144. The bomb was named after a satellite of the planet Ura.n.u.s.

20. Each member of Lovick's crew Each member of Lovick's crew: Interview with Lovick.

21. "Ike wants an airplane from Mandrake the magician" "Ike wants an airplane from Mandrake the magician": Rich, Skunk Works, Skunk Works, 198. 198.

22. "by adding the chemical compound cesium": Johnson, History of the Oxcart Program, History of the Oxcart Program, 4. Johnson wrote: "we proposed the use of cesium additive to the fuel. This was first brought up by Mr. Ed Lovick of ADP, its final development was pa.s.sed over to P&W." Lovick recalls traveling to Pratt and Whitney's research center in Florida where the aircraft engines were being tested. "I realized that I had utilized theory that applied to thermal ionization of gases and would need to use parameters appropriate to electron emission from hot solid surfaces. Our results indicated that we were dealing with mixtures of the two states but we did not know how to determine how much of each kind of material, gas or solid, was involved in the production of the ionization that we measured. The results were encouraging, but we needed to know more. So we were moved to much better facilities at the P. & W. Willgoos Turbine Laboratory in East Hartford, Connecticut." It was there that the problem was solved. 4. Johnson wrote: "we proposed the use of cesium additive to the fuel. This was first brought up by Mr. Ed Lovick of ADP, its final development was pa.s.sed over to P&W." Lovick recalls traveling to Pratt and Whitney's research center in Florida where the aircraft engines were being tested. "I realized that I had utilized theory that applied to thermal ionization of gases and would need to use parameters appropriate to electron emission from hot solid surfaces. Our results indicated that we were dealing with mixtures of the two states but we did not know how to determine how much of each kind of material, gas or solid, was involved in the production of the ionization that we measured. The results were encouraging, but we needed to know more. So we were moved to much better facilities at the P. & W. Willgoos Turbine Laboratory in East Hartford, Connecticut." It was there that the problem was solved.

23. Oxcart being the fastest Oxcart being the fastest: CIA Doc.u.ment EO 12958 3.3(b) Oxcart Facts: A-12 Specifications; A-12 Experience Record (as of July 10, 1967). Note that in November of 1961, the X-15 rocket plane flew Mach 6, or 4,092 mph. At the time of this meeting, the CIA thought they were building the fastest airplane in the world, which technically it was, because the X-15 didn't take off on its own power. As per interviews with T. D. Barnes, who worked on both projects.

24. Area 51 was back in business Area 51 was back in business: Parangosky, The Oxcart Story, The Oxcart Story, 3 (per Dr. Wheelon, Parangosky was the true author of this seminal work on Oxcart; any other name was a pseudonym). The contract was officially signed on February 11, 1960. 3 (per Dr. Wheelon, Parangosky was the true author of this seminal work on Oxcart; any other name was a pseudonym). The contract was officially signed on February 11, 1960.

25. the CIA hired work crews from next door the CIA hired work crews from next door: Interview with Ernie Williams.

26. The construction of a new runway and the fuel farm The construction of a new runway and the fuel farm: Interview with Harry Martin; Pedlow and Welzenbach, Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 2526. 2526.

27. The A-12 Oxcart was a flying fuel tank The A-12 Oxcart was a flying fuel tank: Interview with Harry Martin.

28. CIA's "own little air force" CIA's "own little air force": Interview with Colonel Slater.

29. Getting the Oxcart to fly Getting the Oxcart to fly: Interview with Frank Murray.

30. 186-mile swath just to make a U-turn 186-mile swath just to make a U-turn: Interview with Colonel Slater.

31. same was true at NORAD same was true at NORAD: Interviews with Dr. Wheelon, Colonel Slater.

32. they pa.s.sed a simple sketch they pa.s.sed a simple sketch: Interview with Ed Lovick.

33. S. Varentsov S. Varentsov: CIA Memo, S. Varenstov, Chief Marshal, USSR, The Problem of Combat with the Nuclear Means of the Enemy and Its Solution, August 1961.

34. advancing surface-to-air missile technology advancing surface-to-air missile technology: Interviews with Dr. Wheelon, Ed Lovick, T. D. Barnes.

Chapter Eight: Cat and Mouse Becomes Downfall.

Interviews: Gary Powers Jr., T. D. Barnes, Dr. Wheelon, Jim Freedman, Gene Poteat, Helen Kleyla (Richard Bissell's longtime secretary, via written correspondence) 1. drenched in sweat drenched in sweat: Powers, Operation Overflight, Operation Overflight, 75. 75.

2. Tyuratam was Russia's Cape Canaveral Tyuratam was Russia's Cape Canaveral: CIA report on U-2 Vulnerability Tests, April 1960, Eisenhower Archives, Office of the Staff Secretary, Subject Series, Alphabetical Subseries, Box 15, Intelligence Matters. Memo: ICBM Targets-The Urals and Tyura Tam, "Sverdlovsk in the Urals is the best bet on the location of a major ICBM factory." Notable color U-2 flight maps are in this file.

3. head up to a facility at Plesetsk head up to a facility at Plesetsk: Harford, Korolev, Korolev, 112. "R-7s and R-7As were deployed at only two launch pads at Baikonur and, eventually, four at Plesetsk, a launch center readied by 1959... Plesetsk soon became the busiest of the USSR's three launch facilities, having responsibility for placing in orbit reconnaissance and other military satellites." 112. "R-7s and R-7As were deployed at only two launch pads at Baikonur and, eventually, four at Plesetsk, a launch center readied by 1959... Plesetsk soon became the busiest of the USSR's three launch facilities, having responsibility for placing in orbit reconnaissance and other military satellites."

4. two-and-a-half-foot increments two-and-a-half-foot increments: Brugioni, Eyeball to Eyeball, Eyeball to Eyeball, 185. 185.

5. indicated he wanted to speak with him indicated he wanted to speak with him: Powers, Operation Overflight, Operation Overflight, 69. 69.

6. had a premonition had a premonition: Ibid.

7. awakened by a ringing telephone awakened by a ringing telephone: W. Taubman, Khrushchev, Khrushchev, 443. 443.

8. a sharp poke in the eye a sharp poke in the eye: Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, Khrushchev Remembers, 444. "Sverdlovsk, was an especially deep penetration into our territory and therefore an especially arrogant violation... They were making these flights to show up our impotence. Well, we weren't impotent any longer." 444. "Sverdlovsk, was an especially deep penetration into our territory and therefore an especially arrogant violation... They were making these flights to show up our impotence. Well, we weren't impotent any longer."

9. "An uncomfortable situation was shaping up" "An uncomfortable situation was shaping up": Orlov, "The U-2 Program," 10.

10. Soviets' secret bioweapons program Soviets' secret bioweapons program: Hoffman, The Dead Hand, The Dead Hand, 119. 119.

11. Kyshtym 40 was as valuable Kyshtym 40 was as valuable: Brugioni, Eyeball to Eyeball, Eyeball to Eyeball, 43. 43.

12. "Destroy target" "Destroy target": Orlov, "The U-2 Program," 11.

13. Stop and think: Stop and think: Powers, Powers, Operation Overflight, Operation Overflight, 83. 83.

14. "He's turning left" "He's turning left": Jack Anderson, "US Heard Russians Chasing U-2," Washington Post, Washington Post, May 12, 1960. May 12, 1960.

15. NSA operators heard NSA operators heard: Bamford, Body of Secrets, Body of Secrets, 49. 49.

16. "Bill Bailey did not come home" "Bill Bailey did not come home": Richelson, Wizards of Langley, Wizards of Langley, 18. 18.

17. The brand was Laika The brand was Laika: Powers, Operation Overflight, Operation Overflight, 91. 91.

18. "We believed that if a U-2 was shot": Bissell, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, 12122. But Bissell also admitted that the Agency agreed "unanimously" that the "big rolls of film aboard the plane would not be destroyed... Their nonflammable base would prevent them from burning, and they could be dropped from a height of ten miles and survive. We always knew that in the event of a crash there was going to be a couple rolls of film lying around, and there was not much we could do about it." 12122. But Bissell also admitted that the Agency agreed "unanimously" that the "big rolls of film aboard the plane would not be destroyed... Their nonflammable base would prevent them from burning, and they could be dropped from a height of ten miles and survive. We always knew that in the event of a crash there was going to be a couple rolls of film lying around, and there was not much we could do about it."