Human Foods and Their Nutritive Value Part 10

193. Different Kinds of Bread.--According to variations in method of preparation, there are different types and varieties of bread, as the "flat bread" of Scandinavian countries, unleavened bread, Vienna bread, salt rising bread, etc. Bread made with baking powder differs in no essential way from that made with yeast, except in the presence of the residue from the baking powder, discussed in Chapter XII. Biscuits, wheat cakes, crackers, and other food materials made princ.i.p.ally from flour, have practically the same food value as bread. It makes but little difference in what way flour is prepared as food, for in its various forms it has practically the same digestibility and nutritive value.

194. Toast.--When bread is toasted there is no change in the percentage of total nutrients on a dry matter basis. The change is in solubility and form, and not in amount of nutrients available. Some of the starch becomes dextrine, which is more soluble and digestible.[5]

Proteids, on the other hand, are rendered less soluble, which appears to slightly lower the digestion coefficient. They are somewhat more readily but not quite so completely digested as those of bread. Digestion experiments show that toast more readily yields to the diastase and other ferments than does wheat bread. Toasting brings about ease of digestion rather than increased completeness of the process. Toast is a sterile food, while bread often contains various ferments which have not been destroyed by baking. These undergo incubation during the process of digestion, particularly in the case of individuals with diseases of the digestive tract. With normal digestion, however, these ferment bodies do not develop to any appreciable extent, as the digestive tract disinfects itself. When the flour is prepared from well cleaned wheat and the ferment substances which are present mainly in the bran particles have been removed, a flour of higher sanitary value is secured.

CHAPTER XII

BAKING POWDERS

195. General Composition.--All baking powders contain at least two materials; one of these has combined carbon dioxid in its composition, the other some acid const.i.tuent which serves to liberate the gas. The material from which the gas is obtained is almost invariably sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO_{3}, commonly known as "soda" or "saleratus."

Ammonium carbonate has been used to some extent, but is very seldom used at the present time. The acid const.i.tuent may be one of several materials, the most common being cream of tartar, tartaric acid, calcium phosphate, or alum. These may be used separately or in combination. The various baking powders are designated according to the acid const.i.tuent, as "cream of tartar," "phosphate," and "alum" powders. All of them liberate carbon dioxid gas, but the products left in the food differ widely in nature and amount[69].

Baking powder is a chemical preparation which, when brought in contact with water, liberates carbon dioxid gas. The baking powder is mixed dry with flour, and when this is moistened the carbon dioxid that is liberated expands the dough. The action is similar to that of yeast except that in the case of yeast the gas is given off much more slowly and no residue is left in the bread. When baking powder is used, there is a residue left in the food which varies with the material in the powder. It is the nature and amount of this residue that is important and makes one baking powder more desirable than another.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 51.--INGREDIENTS OF A BAKING POWDER.

1, baking powder; 2, cream of tartar; 3, baking soda; 4, starch.]

196. Cream of Tartar Powders.--The acid ingredient of the cream of tartar powders is tartaric acid, H_{2}C_{4}H_{4}O_{6}. Cream of tartar is pota.s.sium acid tartrate, KHC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}; it contains one atom of replaceable hydrogen, which imparts the acid properties, and it is prepared from crude argol, a deposit of grape juice when wine is made.

The residue from this powder is sodium pota.s.sium tartrate, NaKC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}, commonly known as Roch.e.l.le salt. This is the active ingredient of Seidlitz powders and has a purgative effect when taken into the body. The dose as a purgative is from one half to one ounce. A loaf of bread as ordinarily made with cream of tartar powder contains about 160 grains of Roch.e.l.le salt, which is 45 grains more than is found in a Seidlitz powder, but the amount actually eaten at any one time is small and its physiological effect can probably be disregarded. When a cream of tartar baking powder is used, the reaction takes place according to the following equation:

188 84 210 44 18 HKH_{4}C_{4}O_{6} + NaHCO_{3} = KNaC_{4}H_{4}O_{6} + CO_{2} + H_{2}O.

The crystallized Roch.e.l.le salt contains four molecules of water, so that, even allowing for some starch filler, there is very nearly as much weight of material (Roch.e.l.le salt) left in the food as there was of the original powder. If free tartaric acid were used instead of pota.s.sium acid tartrate, the reaction would be as follows:

150 168 230 88 H_{2}C_{4}H_{4}O{6} + 2NaHCO_{3} = Na_{2}C_{2}H_{4}O_{6}.2 H_{2}O + 2CO_{2}.

But the residue, sodium tartrate, is less in proportion. It has physiological properties very similar to Roch.e.l.le salt. Tartaric acid is seldom used alone, but very often in combination with cream of tartar.

It is more expensive than cream of tartar; but not so much is required, and it is more rapid in action.

197. Phosphate Baking Powders.--Here the acid ingredient is phosphoric acid and the compound usually employed is mono-calcium phosphate, CaH_{4}(PO-{4})_{2}. This is made by the action of sulphuric acid on ground bone (Ca_{3}(PO_{4})_{2} + 2 H_{2}SO_{4} = CaH_{4}(PO_{4})_{2} + 2 CaSO_{4}), and it is difficult to free it from the calcium phosphate formed at the same time; hence such powders contain more or less of this inert material. The reaction which occurs with a phosphate powder is as follows:

234 168 136 CaH_{4}(PO_{4})_{2} + 2 NaHCO_{3} = CaHPO_{4}

88 36 142 + 2 CO_{2} + 2 H_{2}O + Na_{2}HPO_{4}.

Sodium phosphate, according to the United States Dispensatory, is "mildly purgative in doses of from 1 to 2 ounces." The claim is made by the makers of phosphate baking powders that the phosphates of sodium and calcium, products left after the baking, restore the phosphates which have been lost from the flour in the bran. This baking powder residue does not restore the phosphates in the same form in which they are present in grains and it does furnish them in larger amounts--nearly tenfold. However, the residue from these powders is probably less objectionable than that from alum powders. The chief drawback to the phosphate powders is their poor keeping qualities.

198. Alum Baking Powders.--Sulphuric acid is the acid const.i.tuent of these powders. The alums are double sulphates of aluminium and an alkali metal, and have the general formula _x_Al(SO_{4})_{2} in which _x_ may be K, Na, or NH_{4}, producing respectively a potash, soda, or ammonia alum. Potash alum is most commonly used, soda and ammonia alums to a less extent. The reaction takes place as follows:

475 504 157 2 NH_{4}Al(SO_{4})_{2} + 6 NaHCO_{3} = Al_{2}(OH)_{6}

426 132 264 + 3 Na_{2}SO_{4} + (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4} + 6 CO_{2}.

If it is a potash or soda alum, simply subst.i.tute K or Na for NH_{4} throughout the equation. The best authorities regard alum baking powders as the most objectionable. Ammonia alum is without doubt the worst form, since all of the ammonium compounds have an extremely irritating effect on animal tissue. Sulphates of sodium and pota.s.sium are also objectionable. Aluminium hydroxide is soluble in the slightly acid gastric juice and has an astringent action on animal tissue, hindering digestion in a way similar to the alum itself. Many of the alum powders contain also mono-calcium phosphate; the reaction is as follows:

475 234 336 2 NH_{4}Al(SO_{4})_{2} + CaH_{4}(PO_{4})_{2} + 4 NaHCO_{3}

245 136 132 = Al_{2}(PO_{4})_{2} + CaSO_{4} + (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4}

284 176 72 + 2 Na_{2}SO_{4} + 4 CO_{2} + 4 H_{2}O.

These are probably less injurious than the straight alum powders, although the residues are, in general, open to the same objection.

199. Inspection of Baking Powders.--Many of the states have enacted laws seeking to regulate the sale of alum baking powders. Some of these laws simply require the packages to bear a label setting forth the fact that alum is one of the ingredients; others require the baking powder packages to bear a label naming all the ingredients of the powder.

200. Fillers.--All baking powders contain a filler of starch. This is necessary to keep the materials from acting before the powder is used.

The amount of filler varies from 15 to 50 per cent; the least is found in the tartrate powders and the most in the phosphate powders. The amount of gas which a powder gives off regulates its value; it should give off at least 1/8 of its weight.

201. Home-made Baking Powders.--Baking powders can be made at home for about one half what they usually cost and they will give equal satisfaction. The following will make a long-keeping powder: cream of tartar, 8 ounces; baking soda, 4 ounces; corn starch, 3 ounces. For a quick-acting powder use but one ounce of starch. The materials should be thoroughly dry. Mix the soda and starch first by shaking well in a gla.s.s or tin can. Add the cream of tartar last and shake again. Thorough mixing is essential to good results. Cream of tartar is often adulterated, but it can be obtained pure from a reliable druggist. To insure baking powders remaining perfectly dry, they should always be kept in gla.s.s or tin cans, never in paper.

CHAPTER XIII

VINEGAR, SPICES, AND CONDIMENTS

202. Vinegar.--Vinegar is a dilute solution of acetic acid produced by fermentation, and contains, in addition to acetic acid, small amounts of other materials in solution, as mineral matter and malic acid, according to the material from which the vinegar was made. Unless otherwise designated, vinegar in this country is generally considered to be made from apples. Other substances, however, are used, as vinegar can be manufactured from a variety of fermentable materials, as mola.s.ses, glucose, malt, wine, and alcoholic beverages in general. The chemical changes which take place in the production of vinegars are: (1) inversion of the sugar, (2) conversion of the invert sugars into alcohol, and (3) change of alcohol into acetic acid. All these chemical changes are the result of ferment action. The various invert ferments change the sugar into dextrose and glucose sugars; then the alcoholic ferment produces alcohol and carbon dioxid from the invert sugars, and finally the acetic acid ferment completes the work by converting the alcohol into acetic acid. The chemical changes which take place in these different steps are:

sucrose dextrose levulose (1) C_{12}H_{22}O_{11} + H_{2}O = C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} + C_{6}H_{12}O_{6};

dextrose alcohol (2) C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} = 2 C_{2}H_{5}OH + 2 CO_{2};

alcohol acid (3) C_{2}H_{5}OH + 2 O = HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2} + H_{2}O.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 52.--ACETIC ACID FERMENTS. (After KoNIG.)]

The acetic acid organism, _Mycoderma aceti_, can work only in the presence of oxygen. It is one of the aerobic ferments, and is present in what is known as the "mother" of vinegar and is secreted by it. When vinegar is made in quant.i.ty, the process is hastened by allowing the alcoholic solution to pa.s.s through a narrow tank rilled with shavings containing some of the ferment material, and at the same time air is admitted so as to secure a good supply of oxygen. When vinegar is made by allowing cider or wine to stand in a warm place until the fermentation process is completed, a long time is required--the length of time depending upon the supply of air and other conditions affecting fermentation.

In some countries malt vinegar is common. This is produced by allowing a wort made from malt and barley to undergo acetic acid fermentation, without first distilling the alcohol as is done in the preparation of spirit vinegar. In various European countries wine vinegar is in general use and is made by acetification of the juice of grapes. Sometimes spirit vinegar is made from corn or barley malt. Alcoholic fermentation takes place, the alcohol is distilled so that a weak solution remains, which is acetified in the ordinary way. Such a vinegar can be produced very cheaply and is much inferior in flavor to genuine wine or cider vinegar.

Vinegar, when properly made, should remain clear, and should not form a heavy deposit or produce any large amount of the fungous growth, commonly called the "mother" of vinegar. In order to prevent the vinegar from becoming cloudy and forming deposits, it should be strained and stored in clean jugs and protected from the air. So long as air is excluded further acetic acid fermentation and production of "mother" of vinegar cannot take place. When the vinegar is properly made and the fermentation process has been completed, the acid already produced prevents all further development of acetic acid ferments. When vinegar becomes cloudy and produces deposits, it is an indication that the acetic fermentation has not been completed.

The national standard for pure apple cider vinegar calls for not less than 4 grams acetic acid, 1.6 grams of apple solids, and 0.25 grams of apple ash per 100 cubic centimeters, along with other characteristics, as acidity, sugar, and phosphoric acid content. Many states have special laws regarding the sale of vinegar.

203. Adulteration of Vinegar.--Vinegar is frequently adulterated by the addition of water, or by coloring spirit vinegar, thus causing it to resemble cider vinegar. Formerly vinegar was occasionally adulterated by the use of mineral acids, as hydrochloric or sulphuric, but since acetic acid can be produced so cheaply, this form of adulteration has almost entirely disappeared. Colored spirit vinegar contains merely a trace of solid matter and can be readily distinguished from cider vinegar by evaporating a small weighed quant.i.ty to dryness and determining the weight of the solids. Occasionally, however, glucose and other materials are added so as to give some solids to the spirit vinegar, but such a vinegar contains only a trace of ash[18]. Attempts have also been made to carry the adulteration still further by adding lime and soda to give the colored spirit vinegar the necessary amount of ash. Malt, white wine, glucose, and mola.s.ses vinegars when properly manufactured and unadulterated are not objectionable, but too frequently they are made to resemble and sell as cider vinegar. This is a fraud which affects the pocketbook rather than the health. For home use apple cider vinegar is highly desirable. There is no food material or food adjunct, unless possibly ground coffee and spices, so extensively adulterated as vinegar.

Vinegar has no food value whatever, and is valuable only for giving flavor and palatability to other foods, and to some extent for the preservation of foods. It is useful in the household in other ways, as it furnishes a dilute acid solution of aid in some cooking and baking operations for liberating gas from soda, and also when a dilute acid solution is required for various cleaning purposes.

Vinegar should never be kept in tin pails, or any metallic vessel, because the acetic acid readily dissolves copper, tin, iron, and the ordinary metals, producing poisonous solutions. Earthenware jugs, porcelain dishes, gla.s.sware, or wooden casks are all serviceable for storing vinegar.

204. Characteristics of Spices.[70]--Spices are aromatic vegetable substances characterized as a cla.s.s by containing some essential or volatile oil which gives taste and individuality to the material. They are used for the flavoring of food and are composed of mineral matter and the various nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds found in all plant bodies. Since only a comparatively small amount of a spice is used for flavoring purposes, no appreciable nutrients are added to the food.

Some of the spices have characteristic medicinal properties.