Historical Dictionary of Malawi Part 19

WINNEN, ANTON (1874?). One of the first Montfort missionaries to arrive in Malawi in 1901, Father Winnen was born in the Netherlands. Ordained in 1898, he was a professor at Schimmer Seminary in that country before opting to serve in Africa. Considered to be an intellectual, Winnen was adept at learning new languages, an ability that would be particularly useful at Nzama, his first station in the Lake Malawi area. He also excelled at masonry and joinery, both of which skills were also to prove invaluable in his missionary work. In less than two years, Winnen had mastered enough chiChewa to write a collection of New Testament stories for use in local congregations and, in 1906, the books arrived from printers in Salzburg, Austria. In 1907, three years after serving as head of the Nzama Mission station, Father Winnen returned to teach at the Sainte Marie seminary in the Netherlands.

WIt.w.a.tERSRAND NATIVE LABOUR a.s.sOCIATION (WNLA). Popularly known as WNLA, this organization was formed in 1900 by the South African Chamber of Mines to act as its labor recruiting agency, mainly in the area north of the Limpopo: Mozambique, Southern and Northern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland (Malawi). It negotiated with the governments in those colonies on matters concerning migrant labor to the South African mines, and in time it had a major presence in Malawi with an office in Lilongwe and suboffices in main labor catchment districts, such as Chitipa, Karonga, Mzimba, Rumphi, Dedza, and Blantyre. The Chitipa and Karonga stations also drew labor from Tanganyika. In the early 1980s, the WNLA changed its name to Temporary Employment Bureau of Africa (TEBA). See also MIGRANT LABOR.

WOMEN. Some 90 percent of Malawi's women live in rural areas outside the four major urban centers: Blantyre, Lilongwe, Mzuzu, and Zomba. Rural-based women are more involved in farming than men, and the great majority of crops and fieldwork is through the hands of women. On average, women spend as many hours on their farm work as on their domestic responsibilities, such as meal preparation and child care. With the exception of the fishermen in the Lake Chilwa area, men in general seem to have more leisure time. Men certainly have more leisure time compared to women in polygamous areas than those in monogamous regions. It is usually noted that women work largely on subsistence crops and only work with cash crops at harvest time. In fact, nearly 40 percent of the tobacco nursery and planting work is done by women, and the relatively skilled technique of cotton spraying is more frequently undertaken by women. As men leave their farms in search of employment in the estate sector and elsewhere, there is an increase in women's responsibility for smallholder farms. Approximately 30 percent of the heads of households in rural Malawi are women.

Throughout the postcolonial era, there has been a notable gap between government acknowledgment of female farmers and the inclusion and absorption of their talents into society. Prevocational, vocational, and technical training programs are promoted essentially for men. Since it would be an unpopular policy to appoint women as agricultural officers when unemployment exists for men, it is discouraged. The publications of the Malawi Congress Party (MCP) government acknowledged the leading role that Malawi women play in agriculture, including those whom the government honored as achik.u.mbi, or progressive farmers. Extension services were not usually available to women unless either they or their husbands were a.s.sociated with the MCP. Other government services desired most by women are literacy courses, and whenever and wherever these are offered, women dominate the student ranks. Women want to learn to read for several reasons: to be able to attend home craft cla.s.ses held throughout the country; to more easily follow agricultural processes; and to write and read letters. In President Hastings Banda's time, basic literacy was a significant route toward position and privilege in the League of Malawi Women.

Women earn money usually by selling their own produce, often maize, but also beer, beans, chickens, and goats, and they spend their meager incomes on items such as salt, paraffin, soap, clothes, school fees, and government taxes. In the village and urban markets, there are more women vendors than men vendors. At these markets women sell foodstuffs, clothes, pottery, fruits, and vegetables.

To help women get involved in family planning, the Malawi government, at the behest of, and with the help of the World Bank, introduced, in the early 1980s, the Child s.p.a.cing Program, which was free to all mothers. During his first term, President Bakili Muluzi created a Ministry of Women, led by a woman, with one of its major responsibilities being the implementation of the National Gender Policy. The latter dictates the methods of executing women's health programs, including family planning. The policy also deals with nutrition, general gender issues, economic empowerment, and women's rights under the law. Bingu wa m.u.t.h.arika's government has also paid special attention to women's affairs, and after the 2009 general elections, he appointed Patricia Kaliati as minister of gender, child development, and community development. In post-Banda Malawi, there are also many nongovernmental organizations with agendas aimed at promoting the empowerment of women. See also AIDS; BANDA, JOYCE; CHILEMBWE, IDA; CHITUKUKO CHA AMAI MU MALAWI; GONDWE, DOROTHY TIJEPANI; KADZAMIRA, CECILIA TAMANDA; KAINJA, CATHERINE KATE; KARIM, ZEENAT JANET; KAZEMBE, EUNICE; LONGWE, JANET; MAKWINJA, ABITI DOROTHY; MANJAMKHOSI, HILDA; MSOSA, ANASTASIA; NZIMA, MUNENE; SADYALUNDA, FERN NAJERE; WATERSTON, JANE ELIZABETH; WOMEN AND EDUCATION.

WOMEN AND EDUCATION. Throughout the colonial period, Western education for women lagged far behind that of their male counterparts, largely because parents preferred to spend their resources on boys rather than on girls whom they thought ought to get married when they came of age. In addition, opportunities for young girls and women were limited by the churches, which managed nearly all schools. At the Overtoun Inst.i.tute of the Livingstonia Mission only a small percentage of those examined were female: 22 percent in 1898, 14 percent in 1900, and 5 percent in 1935. From 1903 to 1917, academic subjects were dropped for girls and instead they emphasized skills for a subordinate or domestic role: cooking, laundry, sewing, and nursing. The mission rarely recruited African women; in 1939 only 12 females were employed of a total of 1,334. As a result of Rev. Donald Fraser's influence, women were able to act as congregational advisors but, as late as 1935, they were not admitted to full membership and they never were invited to partic.i.p.ate at the presbytery. Although public comments were made about the lack of training facilities for women, there was no interest in effecting a change to correct this lack of opportunity. Similar situations obtained at the Henry Henderson Inst.i.tute of the Blantyre Mission and at other Protestant inst.i.tutions.

Opportunities for Malawi women were not much better in the Catholic sphere with the exception of the formation of a religious order in the 1920s. Two women, Elizabeth Nyambala and Martha Phiri, were allowed to begin the Little Servants of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which was patterned after the Daughters of Wisdom order. Novices were initially taught only to read, write, and sew, but in the 1930s they were given an education, allowing them to become teachers. Although, as more convents manned by African and foreign nuns opened schools, more girls received basic education, things did not improve significantly.

The Hastings Banda government campaigned to improve girls enrollment in schools and opened opportunities to enable them to proceed to secondary and tertiary education. Although the att.i.tude of some parents was slow to change, others responded favorably, especially as it became clear that job opportunities widened. However, in spite of the government encouragement, female partic.i.p.ation in the educational system has remained considerably below that of males. In the late 1990s, less than 33 percent of girls reach the primary leaving certificate level, and less than 30 percent of those continue into the secondary school system. The proportion of children, regardless of gender, who attend school, is always higher in the urban areas and definitely higher when the mothers are better educated. Although nursing schools have a predominantly female student population, most tertiary inst.i.tutions reflect the rest of the country in the dominant gender of students. With the exception of the Kamuzu College of Nursing, male students outnumbered females by more than two to one. In the early 2000s, only 25 percent of the students in the University of Malawi were female. Some nongovernmental organizations in Malawi are promoting female education in collaboration with government, and sometimes independently of it.

WORLD BANK. Since the 1960s, the World Bank, like the International Monetary Fund (IMF), has played a major role in Malawi development plans. It has advised presidents and their governments on development priorities and has been deeply involved in devising projects and in ensuring that they are implemented properly. Such projects have been in many fields, including agriculture, education, transportation, and health. Working closely with the IMF, the World Bank has given Malawi millions of dollars as grants and as loans to effect the projects. For example, between 2003 and 2010, there were 17 active World Bank supported projects involving about US$500,000. See also ECONOMY; PRIVATIZATION.

WORLD WARS. See ARMY.

Y.

YAO. Inhabitants of Balaka, Mangochi, Machinga, most of the Shire Highlands, and parts of the Salima lakesh.o.r.e, the Yao settled in the Lake Malawi region between the 1860s and 1880s, their original home being northern Mozambique. Their contact with their new home long predated the 19th century in that they had been active in the ivory trade between the Indian Ocean and the Luangwa Valley, where their main trading partners were the Bisa. They retained their interest in the ivory trade even after settling permanently in southern Malawi, when they also became interested in the slave trade. In the Lake Malawi area, they settled mostly among the Mang'anja/Nyanja, many of whom they conquered, establishing numerous polities including those of Chik.u.mbu, Kapeni, Mlumbe, Mataka, Jalasi, Makanjila, Makandanji, Mponda, Kawinga, Kuluunda, and Zarafi. During the period 189195, the Yao and the British colonial administration, led by Harry Johnston, were in perpetual conflict, partly because the Yao resisted British rule and partly because the Europeans did not like the Yao involvement in the ivory and slave trade. The African Lakes Company (ALC) felt their prospects of dominating the commerce in ivory was impeded by the Yao's interest in it; Christian missionaries and the government were greatly disturbed by the Yao slave traders. Some Yao were Muslims, and Islam would become the main religion for many of them. This too did not endear them to some Europeans, especially those who wanted to see Christianity prevail in the region.

Despite their resistance to British imperialism, the Yao earned the respect of the British, especially for their courage as fighters, and many would be recruited into the new colonial army and the police. Many of them also became overseers in British establishment and cooks in European households. Relative to other parts of the colony, Western education did not expand much in Yao areas, and President Hastings Banda tried to remedy the situation by introducing government schools in areas where they had not existed before and by encouraging parents to send their children to school. Bakili Muluzi, a Yao and a Muslim, went further by not only campaigning in Yao areas on behalf of Western education, but also supporting Islamic nongovernmental organizations in their work to promote education in heavily Islamic districts.

YIANNAKIS, NICHOLAS. Tobacco grower and commercial fisherman, Nicholas Yiannakis arrived in Malawi in the early 1930s, becoming one of the first Greek citizens to set up business in the British colony. Born on the island of Limnos, Greece, Yiannakis, accompanied by his brothers, Christos Comminos and Stavros, first went to Namwera, Mangochi (Fort Johnston) district, where they became tobacco growers. For a brief period, they turned to the transport business before becoming the first large-scale European fishermen. From their base in the area between Mangochi boma and Monkey Bay, they dominated the fish industry in Malawi, which hitherto had been largely the preserve of Africans. With sophisticated equipment their catches would range between 500 and 770 short tons per year, and with their own trucks, they were able to transport fish to major centers in Malawi as well as to Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe). In 1950, Nicholas bought out his brothers and continued to be a dominant force in commercial fishing until the 1960s.

YOUENS, PETER WILLIAM (19162000). Secretary to the prime minister and cabinet and head of the Malawi civil service from 1964 to 1966, Peter Youens was born in Sheffield, England, attended King Edward VII's School in that city, and graduated from Wadham College, Oxford University in 1938. He joined the Colonial Administrative Service in 1939 and, after two years service in the navy, he was posted to Sierra Leone where he was in the District Administration, first as a.s.sistant district commissioner and, later, as district commissioner (DC). For a brief period, he was commissioner and a member of the colony's Legislative Council (LEGCO), and in 1951 he was transferred to Nyasaland where, starting as a.s.sistant secretary, he rose to the position of deputy chief secretary two years later, a position he held until his further promotion in 1963. Between 1953 and 1961, he was a member of the Nyasaland LEGCO.

Youens was secretary of the cabinet during the Cabinet Crisis of 1964 and was a target of Malawian civil servants who were most unhappy with the recommendations of the Skinner Report, itself an issue of major concern to the rebel cabinet ministers. His office as Dr. Hastings Banda's most senior civil servant, advisor, and confidant and a close advisor to the governor general, Sir Glyn Jones, placed Youens in a position of enormous influence in Malawi's affairs. Knighted in 1965, he retired from the civil service the following year and returned to England where he joined Lonrho as an executive director. Later, he became a partner in the recruiting firm John Tyzack and Partners, from which he retired in 1994. Sir Peter Youens died on 2 May 2000.

YOUNG, EDWARD DANIEL. Commander of the 1867 search expedition that went to the ZambeziLake Malawi region to look for Dr. David Livingstone after reports had reached Great Britain that the missionary and traveler had died. Lieutenant Edward Young was also commander of the first Livingstonia Mission party in 1875. Young, an Englishman from Lydd, Kent, was divisional officer in the Coast Guard Service at nearby Dungeness when the sponsors of the Livingstonia Mission requested him to lead the expedition. The Lords of the Admiralty granted him leave of absence and he took command of the party, including the Ilala, which he navigated from the mouth of the Zambezi, up the Shire River, and finally to Lake Malawi.

Young's mission party left London on 21 May 1875, reached Cape Town on 21 June, and on 11 October arrived at Chief Mponda's headquarters near the point where the Shire flows out of the lake. A day later they entered the lake and proceeded to Cape Maclear, which became the first seat of the mission. After a few weeks, Young, Robert Laws, Henry Henderson, and others sailed around the lake, visiting some of the places Young had been to earlier in 1867. On 2 November 1876, Young left Cape Maclear for England, leaving Dr. James Stewart and his deputy, Laws, in charge of the mission. In 1868, Young published The Search after Livingstone (Letts, Son & Co.); when he returned from Cape Maclear he published articles in the Royal Geographical Society Magazine on his second journey to the Lake Malawi region. He also published, in 1877, Nya.s.sa: A Journal of Adventure.

YOUNG, HUBERT WINTHROP, KCMG, DSO (18851950). Educated at Eton College and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, before he was commissioned as an officer in the Royal Garrison Artillery in 1904, Hubert Young went on to have a distinguished career as a soldier, serving in among other places, India and the Middle East, mostly in the newly created Iraq. He was governor of Nyasaland from 22 November 1932 to 9 April 1934, during which period he presided over the introduction of the Native Authority Ordinance of 1933, which revised greatly the indirect rule system in the colony. He also tried to deal with the problem of Africans on private estates, an issue resolved partially by his successor through the inst.i.tution of the African Trust Land. From 1934 to 1938, and from 1938 to 1942, Young was respectively governor of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Trinidad and Tobago. Thereafter, he worked as a soldier, diplomat, and politician in Europe.

YOUNG, THOMAS CULLEN (18801955). Livingstonia missionary, anthropologist, linguist, and historian of Malawi, Cullen Young was born in Glasgow, Scotland, in October 1880. In 1902, he qualified as a chartered accountant and proceeded to study theology in Glasgow and at New College, Edinburgh. Upon completion two years later, he left the Lake Malawi region to join the Livingstonia Mission. Young served at the Overtoun Inst.i.tution, Karonga, and Loudon. Just before World War I, he was ordained and, on his return to Nyasaland, he was posted to Tamanda but soon joined the war service as an intelligence agent attached to the Rhodesian forces fighting in Tanganyika. From 1916 to 1919, he was at Kasungu where he met Hastings Banda, from 1920 to 1925 at the Overtoun Inst.i.tution again, and from 1927 to 1931, when he left the services of the Livingstonia Mission, Young was stationed at Loudon for the second time. Upon his arrival in Great Britain in 1931, he joined the Religious and Tract Society as deputy secretary and home superintendent, and from 1940 to 1946, he became general secretary of the United Society for Christian Literature. Cullen Young died on 14 June 1955.

Young is much known as a promoter of studies in the languages, cultures, and history of the Lake Malawi peoples, and he published many articles and books in these fields. Just before he died the University of Edinburgh awarded him an honorary MA degree in recognition of his contributions to African research. His numerous publications include Notes on the Speech and History of the Tumbuka-Henga Peoples (1923), Notes on the Customs and Folklore of the Tumbuka-Kamanga Peoples (1931), Notes on the History of the Tumbuka-Kamanga Peoples (1932), African Ways and Wisdom (1937), and Contemporary Ancestor (1940). In the late 1930s, Cullen Young met Hastings Banda, his former student at Kasungu, and now a medical doctor in Great Britain. They became friends and together edited Our African Ways of Life (1946). Young also encouraged and a.s.sisted Malawian writers to publish their ma.n.u.scripts. He translated from chiChewa into English Samuel Ntara's Man of Africa (1933), and later a.s.sisted in the publication of The Headman's Enterprise (1949), also by Ntara. He also edited and oversaw the publication of Yesaya Chibambo's My Ngoni of Nyasaland (1942). See also YOUNG, WILLIAM PAULIN.

YOUNG, WILLIAM PAULIN. Teacher, missionary, and princ.i.p.al of the Overtoun Inst.i.tution from 1927 to 1937, Rev. William Young, brother of Thomas Cullen Young, joined the Livingstonia Mission in 1910, was stationed at Loudon, and during World War I saw service in Europe. Upon his return to Nyasaland in 1922, he became headmaster of the Overtoun Inst.i.tution's school. Much influenced by the ideas of Donald Fraser, under whom he had worked at Loudon, Young did not agree with the mission's educational policy that Dr. Robert Laws had championed at Livingstonia and satellite stations. Laws believed in training Africans in technical skills, such as motor mechanics, masonry, and carpentry, but he was also determined to produce an African student who was intellectually developed, and, to this extent, he unsuccessfully fought hard to build a college patterned on Aberdeen University, Scotland. Young and Fraser strongly agreed with the recommendations of the Phelps Stokes Commission, which emphasized agricultural training and crafts rather than European-based education. When Laws was forced to retire in 1927, Young took over headship of the Livingstonia Mission and became princ.i.p.al of the Overtoun Inst.i.tution. He immediately set out to implement his ideas on education, but by the time he retired, in 1937, his policies, compared to those of his predecessor, had made little headway.

YOUTH. Malawi youth have played an exceptionally active role in their nation's development, and in the period of Dr. Hastings Banda's rule, the League of Malawi Youth was a major vehicle though which they partic.i.p.ated in the political life of the country. The Youth League was formed in 1958 as a wing of the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC), and later, the Malawi Congress Party (MCP). The party's leadership used the Youth League to recruit new members, to raise funds through membership cards, and to mobilize support for the party; they were the marshals at party rallies and acted as bodyguards for senior party officials. Even though the league stressed discipline in the organization, the youths' enthusiasm often overcame them, leading to overzealousness and unacceptable conduct in their dealings with the public.

In 1963, the Malawi Young Pioneers (MYP) evolved out of the Youth League. Its structure was based on models in Ghana and Israel, where the first groups of Malawian instructors were trained. Later, the Ministry of Youth and Culture was established to oversee, among other departments, the MYP. This ministry continued to depend on Israeli experts to train Young Pioneers at advanced levels. MYP bases were established in all districts of Malawi, and there, students not selected to secondary schools went through a 10-month training in leadership, agricultural development, citizenship, and self-help skills. Sessions included physical education, drill, elements of military operations, agricultural and community development techniques, the role of the MCP, health, and carpentry. Coursework also stressed the party's cornerstones: Unity, Loyalty, Obedience, and Discipline.

About one-third of the trainees were women, and upon completion, some of the graduates, regardless of gender, returned to their villages where they helped to effect agricultural change. Most joined agricultural settlement schemes or taught in trade schools; others worked with the police in teams patrolling neighborhoods. During Youth Week, annually observed throughout the country, both youth and adults completed various self-help development projects such as building teachers' houses, school rooms, bus shelters, and bridges.

An enterprises division of the MYP was established for the purpose of bringing revenue to the organization. These commercial activities, called Spearhead Enterprises, soon acquired a cattle ranch in Ntcheu, a dairy at Mapanga, a poultry unit at Nasawa, a garment factory in Blantyre, and 14 farms growing tobacco, maize, coffee, cotton, and vegetables throughout the country. Spearhead was financed by a Treasury guarantee, itself fully supported by President Banda. In 1978, its operations were questioned, the flimsy finances were exposed, and by 1980, it ended in receivership.

A legislative edict of 1965 converted the MYP into an integral part of the Malawi security forces. The police could not arrest a Young Pioneer without his or her district commander's consultation. The MYP established its own security services, including a division that dealt with foreign countries, especially those that hosted Malawian exiles. The movement also acquired powerful arms and stockpiles of ammunition, independent of those of the police and the Malawi army, making it a force to reckon with. The authority of the movement was reduced in 1980 when Gwanda Chakuamba, commander of the MYP for part of the 1960s and throughout the 1970s, lost power and was imprisoned. From that time onward, the Young Pioneers's paramilitary role waned as the command of the Malawi army objected to this elite corps having the same facilities and equipment as theirs. The tensions between the army and the MYP would culminate in Operation Bwezani of December 1993, which marked the beginning of the end of this wing of the MCP. After the elections of 1994, the MYP organization was disbanded.

Bakili Muluzi's United Democratic Front had its Young Democrats but, unlike the MYP, they were not involved in any development projects. Instead, they came to be a.s.sociated with intimidation and excessive loyalty to their party.

Z.

ZAMBEZI INDUSTRIAL MISSION (ZIM). Joseph Booth's first Christian mission established in 1892 from his Mitsidi base, just outside the emerging town of Blantyre, the ZIM was given its name because Booth envisaged the Zambezi area as the center from which his Christian message would spread to the rest of the world. It would be a self-sustaining Baptist mission in which Africans would play a full role and where Africans would be trained in agriculture and other skills so as to enable them to be economically independent. Booth's view was that, depending on the opportunity, Africans, like all other peoples, had the G.o.d-given ability to manage their own affairs; he sought to show this at his mission stations. Within a year, about a million coffee bushes were planted at Mitsidi and the nearby Nyasa Industrial Mission, also founded by Booth. From Mitsidi the ZIM's activities spread to parts of Blantyre and the Shire Highlands, including Thyolo where he established a Bible Training College. The mission also spread northward through Zomba into Gomani's jurisdiction in Ntcheu/Dedza, which later would const.i.tute one of its most successful areas of operations. The success of the ZIM became a concern to other missionaries, mostly those at Blantyre Mission who complained about ZIM's form of Christianity, their taking of converts, and its labor policies. Some European employers also criticized its methods of labor recruitment, which made it a difficult compet.i.tor. By 1897, Booth had severed relations with the ZIM, but by that time it had established roots in Nyasaland and had recruited future church leaders such as John Chilembwe.

ZAMBIA. Until independence from Great Britain in October 1964, Zambia was called Northern Rhodesia, so named because in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a significant part of it fell under the jurisdiction of the British South Africa Company owned by Cecil Rhodes. Zambia borders with Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo in the north, Angola in the west, Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique in the south, and Malawi in the east. Zambia and Malawi share ethnic and linguistic groups all along their border: Lambya and Tumbuka and Chewa/Nyanja-speaking peoples. Like Malawi, it is landlocked and dependent on road and rail to export its goods, mainly refined copper, zinc, and tobacco. It exports mostly to j.a.pan, China, the European Union, and South Africa, the last two dominating the country's import trade.

Active in inter-African affairs, Zambia has been a major player in the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the British Commonwealth, the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC). From the 1960s to the early 1990s, Zambia was the home of exile for many liberation movements, including the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), the Southwest People's Party (SWAPO) of Namibia, and the African National Congress (ANC) of South Africa. This generosity exposed Zambia to military attacks from south of the Zambezi, and the inability to use the Mozambican port of Beira via Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) greatly contributed to the declining economy of the country in the 1970s.

Zambia was part of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, and although Dr. Hastings Banda is credited with leading the fight against the union, Kenneth Kaunda and Harry Nk.u.mbula of Zambia also played a decisive role in its dissolution. Kaunda, Zambia's first president (196491), never endorsed Banda's dialogue with South Africa, even though he would concede that Malawi had been an effective mediator in negotiations with the apartheid regime. Although relations between Malawi and Zambia have been strained at times, generally they have been and continue to be warm.

In 1991, Kaunda's United National Independent Party (UNIP) lost to the Movement for Multi-Party Democracy (MMD), a new political organization led by the labor unionist Frederick Chiluba, who went on to win for the second time, four years later. Chiluba's successors as presidents, Levi Mwanawasa, and Rupiah Banda, have maintained good relations with Malawi and continue to play a major role in regional organizations such as COMESA and SADC. In 2010, Zambia, like other SADC countries, supported strongly President Bingu wa m.u.t.h.arika's candidature for the chair of the African Union.

ZANSI. The original followers of Zw.a.n.gendaba who had joined the party in the southeast, especially in the vicinity of today's KwazuluNatal. As Zw.a.n.gendaba a.s.similated people during his party's trek, this initial Ngoni-speaking group became important close advisors of the chief, enjoyed special privileges, and guarded their status with pride.

ZANZIBAR. In 1964, this island off the Tanganyika coast joined with Tanganyika to form Tanzania. Zanzibar has a long connection with the Lake Malawi area in that many of the Swahili-Arab traders, including the Jumbe of Nkhotakota and Mlozi bin Kazbadema, who operated in the latter area, claimed strong links with Zanzibar. Most of the ivory and slaves from the Lake Malawi area went to the main markets at Zanzibar, and some of the people who live there today trace their history to Malawi.

ZARAKUTI, FRED. One of the freed slaves who const.i.tuted the community at the Universities' Mission to Central Africa (UMCA) Station at Magomero, Zarakuti, a Mang'anja, was also among those whom Lovell Procter and Horace Waller took to Cape Town when Bishop William Tozer moved the mission out of the Shire Valley. In 1876, Zarakuti joined Lt. Edward Young's first Livingstonia Mission party, and with Albert Namalambe worked as interpreter and a.s.sistant at Cape Maclear and at Bandawe. Zarakuti was dismissed from mission service in 1879 for, among other reasons, an excessive social life, especially affairs with women. He returned to Cape Town but, two years later, he was back in the Shire Highlands as an employee of the African Lakes Company (ALC).

ZEIL, WILLIAM ROBERT. Originally from Natal, South Africa, Zeil was an employee of the North Charterland Exploration Company administered from Chief Mpezeni's area in the Luangwa Valley. In January 1899, he and his five armed a.s.sistants, including two members of the company's police force, went to the Ngoni country under the M'mbelwa to buy cattle. The Ngoni, already suspicious of any European who came from the recently conquered Mpezeni, their close relative, were unimpressed by Zeil's conduct. They accused him and his employees of deceit, physical violence, and rape of their women, and chased him out of their area. As they departed with many stolen cattle, Zeil's party shot into the crowd, killing two men and wounding an elderly woman. Government police and warriors from inkosi Mzukuzuku tried to pursue the offenders, who escaped back into the company's territory.

Upon Alfred Sharpe's appeal to the company's administrator, Zeil was repatriated to Ekwendeni, where his case was heard under the judgment of Captain Francis Pearce of the Nyasaland administration, a.s.sisted by two European a.s.sessors, Andrew Forbes, a Bandawe-based businessman, and William Murray, a Livingstonia missionary. Charged with nine offenses, Zeil was found guilty of eight, sentenced to imprisonment for six months or a fine of 50, and had to pay 9.10 sterling to the aggrieved; he was also ordered to return the cattle. Zeil would repeat the crime, and, this time, he was deported from the area. An immediate result of the Zeil incident was the Purchase of Cattle from Natives Ordinance, which Sharpe inst.i.tuted in February 1899 to discourage a repet.i.tion of the case. The ordinance determined that cattle buyers had to obtain business permits from a collector and had to declare the quant.i.ty to be bought, the lowest price to be paid, and the names of traditional rulers from whose areas the business would be conducted; finally, cattle traders had to show the collector of the area the cattle and proof of purchase.

ZIMBABWE. With a population of about 12.5 million people, Zimbabwe borders Zambia to the north, Botswana in the west and southwest, South Africa to the south, and Mozambique to the west. From the end of the 19th century to 1965, when the settler government declared unilateral independence from the British, it was called Southern Rhodesia; it became Rhodesia from 1965 to 1980, when the African majority took control, changing the name to Zimbabwe after the precolonial state. Malawi has had strong links with Zimbabwe dating back to the beginning of the 20th century when, as Southern Rhodesia, it was a major destination of Malawian labor. People went there on their own, others through the Rhodesia Native Labour Bureau, also known as Mthandizi. Today, over 1 million people of Malawi origins live in Zimbabwe. Strong economic relations between the two countries have also existed since the early 20th century, and such ties were greatly strengthened during the years of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, when 39 percent of Malawi's imports came from its neighbor to the west.

When the Ian Smith regime announced its Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) in 1965, the British imposed both diplomatic and economic sanctions. The Organization of African Unity (OAU), the British Commonwealth, and the United Nations imposed mandatory sanctions on Rhodesia. Although Malawi complied with most of the 1966 sanctions, it refused to implement the additional list of 1968. While agreeing to reduce its economic ties with Rhodesia, President Hastings Banda pointed out that Malawi would suffer more than the rebellious country from the severance of economic ties. From Banda's point of view, Malawi's economy was too fragile not to maintain a "friendly relationship" with Rhodesia. The Malawi government further argued that sanctions harmed the 95 percent black majority in Rhodesia and encouraged additional hostility in the white-ruling minority.

In 1980, Rhodesia became Zimbabwe, with Robert Mugabe of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) as the prime minister; a few years later, his status changed to executive president. Initially, relations were strained, but as ZANU took into consideration the a.s.sistance Banda gave it during the fight for const.i.tutional changes, and as Mugabe became older, the relations improved greatly and have remained good in the post-Banda era. Zimbabwe continues to be one of Malawi's major commercial partners, and the two have a free trade agreement that specifies the terms, allowing for exchange of goods without the charge of tariffs through the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA). Both, being landlocked, have always relied heavily on the Mozambique port of Beira; both countries were also badly affected by the civil war in Mozambique and had to channel their trade through South Africa, their other significant trading partner. A founding member of the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC), Zimbabwe continued to be a major player in African affairs, in spite of the fact that many in Africa were uneasy with President Mugabe's domestic policies since the 1990s.

The relations between Zimbabwe and Malawi became warmer under President Bingu wa m.u.t.h.arika, whose first wife, Ethel, was born in Zimbabwe. In 2007, m.u.t.h.arika's government sold 400,000 metric tons of maize to Zimbabwe, and President Mugabe has been a frequent visitor to Malawi, including on 23 October 2010, when he was a guest of honor at the opening of the Nsanje port on the Shire River.

ZIYAYE, TARCISIUS GERVAZIO (1949 ). Archbishop of Blantyre and senior prelate of the Catholic Church in Malawi, Ziyaye was born at Khombe village, Mchinji district, on 19 May 1949, went to Kachebere Seminary, was ordained in 1977, and served as a priest in central Malawi before being appointed as auxiliary bishop of Dedza in 1991. Two years later, he was appointed coadjutor bishop of Lilongwe, and on 11 November 1994, he succeeded Bishop Mathias Chimole as bishop of Lilongwe diocese. Upon the retirement of Archbishop James Chiona on 23 January 2001, he became the head of the metropolitan archdiocese of Blantyre, and during his tenure the profile of the church in civic society has increased.

From 2002 to 2004, the Catholic Church, like the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian (CCAP) and other organizations, opposed President Bakili Muluzi's attempt to change the Const.i.tution to allow him to contest for a third term. In 2010, Archbishop Ziyaye met Catholic members of the National a.s.sembly to remind them that their loyalty to their faith must precede all other considerations as they deliberate issues and make laws. In the same year, the Church took a strong stand against h.o.m.os.e.xuality, especially when it became public knowledge that a gay couple, Steven Monjeza and Tiwonge Chimbalanga, planned to marry. Also in 2010, the Church was one of the many other denominations and organizations in the country that spoke against the government's plans to make changes to the national flag.

ZOMBA. Capital of Malawi from 1891 to 1975, Zomba is also the name of the district of which Zomba is the headquarters. Zomba town (about 55,000 people) is 42 miles north of Blantyre and is located on the slopes of the mountain of the same name that forms part of the Shire Highlands. This very fertile region was originally inhabited by the Mang'anja but, in the period 186075, it was conquered by the Yao, who proceeded to rule it under chiefs Mlumbe, Malemia, k.u.mtumanji, and Chikowi. When the first Blantyre Mission party of Henry Henderson and Tom Bokwito stopped in Zomba, very near the spot of the future capital, their host was Kalimbuka, a junior of Malemia. Within three years, Zomba became the first major substation of the Blantyre Mission, Kalimbuka and Malemia having granted permission for their presence in the area. John Buchanan, one of the mission's agriculturalists, was posted to Zomba, and upon his dismissal in 1880, he remained there and began to grow coffee and sugarcane along the Mlungusi and Kalimbuka streams, which flow into Lake Chilwa.

From 1885 to 1891, Buchanan acted as British vice consul, and when Captain A. G. S. Hawes became consul in 1885, he chose Zomba as the site of the colonial administrative center, partly because Buchanan was already there, partly because neither he nor Buchanan had particularly warm relations with the European community in Blantyre, and partly because it placed him in a good position to keep an eye on the slave trade routes in the area immediately south of Lake Malawi. Soon the Residency, as the official accommodation of the consul was called, was built on the banks of the Mlungusi, just upstream from the mission station. Now called the Government Hostel, the Residency lost its position in 1904 when the Government House was built. In 1964, the name of the Government House changed to the State House, becoming one of the numerous official residences of President Hastings Banda.

Zomba remained the seat of government for Malawi until 1975 when Lilongwe became the national capital. Parliament continued to meet in Zomba until after the 1994 general elections when it changed its venue to Lilongwe.

Since 1973, Zomba has been known as the university town, home to Chancellor College and the central administrative offices of the University of Malawi. The Malawi National Examination Board is also located there, as is the Forestry Research Inst.i.tute and the National Archives of Malawi.

ZULU GAMA. After the death of the Ngoni leader, Zw.a.n.gendaba, one of his councillors (nduna), Zulu Gama, led a splinter group to the Songeya region of southern Tanzania where they were later to clash with the Maseko Ngoni.

ZUZA, JOSEPH MUKASA (1955 ). First Malawian bishop of the diocese of Mzuzu, and vice chairman of the influential Episcopal Conference of Malawi, Joseph Zuza was born on 2 October 1955, at Malembo in northern Malawi, and educated at St. Patrick's Minor Seminary in Rumphi district and at Kachebere Major Seminary. He was ordained as a priest on 25 July 1982, served in several parishes, and, on 6 May 1995, succeeded Bishop Jean-Louis Jobidon, a Canadian, who had a few years earlier retired for health reasons.

Zw.a.n.gENDABA (c. 1785c. 1848). Leader of one of the most remarkable migrations in modern history and founder of numerous Ngoni states north of the Zambezi, Zw.a.n.gendaba was a son of Hlatshwayo, a famous general of the House of Elangeni. Zw.a.n.gendaba, head of the semiautonomous Ncw.a.n.geni Jele who lived in the vicinity of St. Lucia in northern Kwazulu Natal, became an important nduna (headman, councillor) and general of Zwide, the leader of the Ndwandwe Confederacy. After Zwide lost to Shaka, the Zulu chief, at the Battle of Mhlathuse in 1818, Zw.a.n.gendaba and his followers fled the wrath of Shaka and embarked on a 2,000-mile trek that would last 30 years, conquering, raiding, and a.s.similating various ethnic groups whom they encountered. The party first headed to the Delagoa Bay area of Mozambique, then turned northwestward into modern Zimbabwe where they destroyed the weakening Rozwi state. In 1835, they crossed the Zambezi near Zumbo into the Luangwa Valley toward the Senga country, entering modern south Mzimba where, at Mawiri, Mhlahlo M'mbelwa Jere was born around 1840. At this point, the party went northward toward Ufipa in modern Tanzania where, according to Ngoni traditions, scouts had established the existence of a very good stock of red cattle. However, Zw.a.n.gendaba died just short of his destination.

Following his death, a major succession dispute took place, with all his prospective heirs being minors. Ntabeni, Zw.a.n.gendaba's brother and advisor, a.s.sumed the regency of the Jere family, but soon after he also died, and his followers, including his son, NG.o.doyi, left northward toward Lake Victoria and was never heard from again. When Mgayi, the second regent, died, a more serious split occurred: Zulu Gama and his followers went eastward and settled in the Songea, the border region between the modern states of Tanzania and Mozambique; Mpezeni moved southwestward to the Bemba country and then southeast to the Luangwa Valley where he settled in the modern Chipata region; his brother, Mpherembe, who originally joined him, returned to the main group, which, led by the third regent nduna Gwaza Jere, had reentered the northern Malawi area, where, under the new inkosi (king), M'mbelwa, they would establish a major polity covering present-day Mzimba district.

Bibliography

Introduction.

When democracy returned to Malawi in the early 1990s, restrictions on publications, enforced vigorously through the Censorship Act of 1968, were greatly relaxed, leading to a proliferation of literature on the country. Some of the recent publications cover new fields, others are revisionist, yet others try to explain the very period of limitations on freedom of expression.

The main depository of primary sources for Malawi history remains the National Archives in Zomba. For the colonial period, it is essential to consult the appropriate files in the Public Records Office, London, and, depending on the nature of the research project, the Church of Scotland doc.u.ments in the National Library of Scotland in Edinburgh are likely to prove useful. Other foreign mission headquarters in Europe and North America, including the Vatican Archives in Rome, also hold doc.u.ments of direct importance to Malawi. The Rhodes House in Oxford and the Society of Malawi offices and library in Limbe contain a variety of sources relevant to Malawi's history. Furthermore, the Malawi Collection in the library of Chancellor College, University of Malawi, Zomba, is a major source of material on Malawi.

A number of important bibliographical collections pertaining to Malawi have been published at various times in the past 45 years. The first significant one was A Bibliography of Malawi compiled by Edward E. Brown, Carol A. Fisher, and John B. Webster (1965); four years later, John Webster and Paulos Mahome updated it, producing A Supplement to a Bibliography of Malawi. The 3,300 unannotated entries in the original publication and those in the 1969 edition are listed according to 24 subject cla.s.sifications, including agriculture, anthropology, education, Christian missions, travel, and zoology. The book reflects the extent of the literature on Malawi in the early 1960s and, although it continues to be useful to researchers today, it has been greatly superseded by more recent bibliographies. Most of the latter are specialized and, among them, are Ray Jackson, An Annotated Bibliography of Education in Malawi (1976), Stan Made et al., One Hundred Years of ChiChewa Writing 18751975: A Selected Bibliography (1976), S. Mwiyeriwa, Vernacular Literature of Malawi, 18541975 (1976), and John W. East, "Reference Works for Malawian Studies: A Select and Annotated List," MALA Review 3, no. 2 (1982). There is a short but pertinent bibliographical review by Augustine C. Msiska, "Malawi's Hidden Bibliographies: A Preliminary Survey of Some Earlier Texts," African Research and Doc.u.mentation 57 (1991): 1520.

Two bibliographical studies are highly recommended: J. Kalley et al., "Malawi-25 Years of Independence," Southern Africa Update 5, no. 1 (1990) is a survey with 745 items listed under 23 subject categories and is very extensive in its coverage of the literature. More valuable and, definitely, the most comprehensive of them all is Samuel Decalo (compiler), Malawi: Second Edition (1995). The book starts with a useful introduction to the history of Malawi, followed by a list of dissertations on subjects directly relevant to Malawi, and has 508 annotated and numbered entries, besides many other items, which are added to the main descriptions.

Many books and journal articles describe Malawi in the 19th century, most of them being memoirs or travel accounts of missionaries and adventurers. Among them are David Livingstone, Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambezi and Its Tributaries, 185864 (1865) and Duff Macdonald, Africana or the Heart of Heathen Africa, vols. 1 and 2 (1882). However, the first notable attempt to present an overview of the Lake Malawi region is Harry Johnston, British Central Africa (1897). Relying heavily on the author's own observations and on the works of others, the book deals with numerous topics from fauna and flora, to ethnic groups and their cultures, and the establishment of British authority in the 1880s and 1890s. A more a.n.a.lytical study of the extension of British rule to this area will be found in, among others, Roland Oliver, Sir Harry Johnston and the Scramble for Africa (1958) and A. J. Hannah, The Beginnings of Nyasaland and North-Eastern Rhodesia (1959). Both books are based primarily on missionary and official British sources and do not evaluate the African reaction to the foreign intrusion. Readers interested in Malawi, especially in the African response to colonialism, should start with George Shepperson and Thomas Price, Independent African (1958). Generally considered a cla.s.sic, the book also delves into relations between Western Christian missionaries and Africans, between the various missionary societies themselves, and between the missionaries and the colonial government. With an abundance of primary sources and, with the thoroughness of skilled writers, Shepperson and Price explore the background to the events of January and February 1915.

The 1960s marked the beginning of a new approach to writing about Malawi, one that was careful to encompa.s.s African perspectives. This necessitated the use of oral evidence and the need to revisit the hitherto ignored literature by local writers. The result was a number of theses, books, and articles, including Robert Rotberg, The Rise of Nationalism in Malawi and Zambia, 18731964 (1964) and the doctoral theses of, among others, B. S. Krishnamurthy (1964), McCracken (1967), Andrew Ross (1968), Roderick Macdonald (1969), Roger Tangri (1970), and Emily Maliwa (1970). The enthusiasm and hope for newly independent African nations tended to influence the new writing in the sense that often authors became less critical in a.s.sessing actions of Africans during the colonial period. The 1960s also witnessed the beginnings of serious academic interest in precolonial history, which, as the bibliography in John G. Pike's Malawi: A Political and Economic History (1969) shows, had hitherto been left to amateur historians. From the 1970s onward, doctoral theses, books, and articles, all with useful bibliographies, became part of the increasing literature on Malawi. Typical of them are E. A. Alpers (1975), L. Vail (1972), H. W. Langworthy (1973, 1996), K. M. Phiri (1975), M. A. Vaughan (1981, 1987 revised in 2007), O. J. M. Chipeta (1982), O. J. M. Kalinga (1985), E. C. Mandala (1991, 2005), and the numerous publications of Matthew Schoffeleers.

Bridgral Pachai (ed.), The Early History of Malawi (1972), containing the work of 24 authors and covering events from prehistoric times to the early 20th century, is another example of the emerging historiography of the 1960s. However, articles such as those by M. Channock and R. Palmer also demonstrate the more balanced approach that would be a major aspect of historical a.n.a.lysis of Malawi from the 1970s onward.

The first notable overview of the political history of Malawi is T. David Williams, Malawi: Politics of Despair (1978). With restrictions of access to the National Archives of Malawi and with limitations on researchers' ability to conduct oral interviews, the book has gaps that hopefully will be filled now that freedom of expression has returned. Other books in the general political field were published in the 1970s: Philip Short, Banda (1974), which has important sources, some of them not attributed; Carolyn McMaster, Malawi Foreign Policy and Development (1974); and Kanyama Chiume, Kwacha: An Autobiography (1975). In 1992, Guy Mhone edited Malawi at the Crossroads: The Post-Colonial Political Economy, representing the first major review of Malawi under President Hastings Banda. More recently, biographies such as those by Colin A. Baker have added more to the bibliography of the political and administrative history of the Lake Malawi area. Masauko Chipembere's autobiography, Hero of the Nation (2002), published posthumously, and Colin Baker's biography of Chipembere, Chipembere: The Missing Years (2006), have added more to the political historiography. However, the latest comprehensive examination of the Malawi's political history is Joey Power, Political Culture and Nationalism in Malawi: Building Kwacha (2010), which is based on wide-ranging archival sources and oral interviews. This followed another more recent important survey of Malawi's political history, Andrew Ross, Colonialism to Cabinet Crisis: A Political History of Malawi (2009).

Also in the 1960s and 1970s, studies reevaluating Christian missionary activities, going beyond the earlier works by Roland Oliver (1951) and George Shepperson (1958), were undertaken and, in many cases, published. They include Ian and Jane Linden, Catholics, Peasants and Chewa Resistance in Nyasaland 18891939 (1974); John McCracken, Politics and Christianity in Malawi, 18751940: The Impact of the Livingstonia Mission in the Northern Province (1977); Howard B. Bicker's PhD dissertation, "A Missionary Strategy for Evangelism in Central Africa: An Examination of People-Movement Strategy in the Historical Cultural Context of Malawi" (1977); and C. M. Pauw's DTh thesis, "Mission and Church in Malawi: The History of the Nkoma Synod of the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian 18891962" (1980). In the 1990s, Harvey Sindima, The Legacy of Scottish Missionaries in Malawi (1992), and Andrew Ross, Blantyre Mission and the Making of Modern Malawi (1996), were important additions. As the main part of this bibliography demonstrates, many other dissertations on Christianity were to follow in the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s.

In social sciences, Mary Tew's Peoples of the Lake Nyasa Region (1950) const.i.tuted a pioneering anthropological and sociological study and was accompanied by a useful bibliography. It was followed by J. C. Mitch.e.l.l, The Yao Village (1956), Margaret Read, The Ngoni of Nyasaland (1956), and Jaap van Velsen, The Politics of Kinship: A Study of Social Manipulation among the Lakeside Tonga of Nyasaland (1964). Since the 1960s, further advances have been made in this general area and useful information will be found in the works of scholars such as Matthew Schoffeleers, Laurel Birch de Aguilar, Hari Englund, and Deborah Kaspin. Many social scientists have joined health specialists in a.s.sessing the effects of AIDS on Malawian societies, and there is a growing body of literature on this disease. Paul Kishindo (1995), Ezekiel Kalipeni (1997), and Wiseman Chirwa (1995, 1997, 1999) would be good starting points.

In the field of economics, the following organizations regularly issue invaluable reports: the Malawi National Statistical Office, the Reserve Bank of Malawi, the various commercial banks in Malawi, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, the African Development Bank, the Southern Africa Development Community, the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, and nongovernmental agencies. The Africa Research Bulletin, published in Exeter, England, on a monthly basis, is another important source on economic and political issues. Also important is T. Benson, J. Kap.h.u.ka, S. Kanyanda, and R. Chinula, "Malawi: An Atlas of Statistics," a publication by the National Statistical Office and the International Food Policy Research Inst.i.tute (2002), and "Famine Early Warning System Network" (20002002). Various monthly Food Security Reports for Malawi, are now available from www.fews.net.

As Steve Chimombo's, A Bibliography of Oral Literature in Malawi, 18601986 (1987) shows, progress has equally been made in the literary field, both in vernacular and in English, adding to the earlier works of Aubrey Kachingwe (1966), Legson Kayira (1965, 1967, 1969), Stevenson k.u.makanga (1944), Samuel Ntara (1934, 1944), David Rubadiri (1965), and others. In English, the Writers Workshop at Chancellor College has been central to the emergence of a generation of writers, including Frank Chipasula, Dede Kamkondo, Anthony Nazombe, and James Ngombe, all of whose works have been published by Heinemann and Longman in their "African Writers" series, and by the Limbe-based Popular Publications in their "Malawian Writers" series. The latter also publishes in chiChewa. Other publishers include Dudu Nsomba, Montfort Media and Dzuka, JHango, Kachere series, and the Christian Literature a.s.sociation of Malawi (CLAIM).

For scientists, Clemence Namponya, Annotated Bibliography of Agriculture in Malawi, 19301980 (1985), and J. H. A. Maida, National Inventory of Scientific Publications (1991) are good starting points. Various government departments, including the Department of Geological Survey, and ministries that oversee natural resources, the environment, energy, and the sciences in general issue regular reports on their work. As local research inst.i.tutions and universities attract well-trained scientists, the literature in this field will continue to increase. Books such as Brian Morris, The Power of Animals: An Ethnography (1998), contain useful bibliographies that point toward some of the areas where research is being undertaken and published.

Since the reintroduction of freedom of expression, many more books about Malawi have been published dealing with different aspects of the postcolonial era. Serious attempts by authors such as John Lwanda (1994, 1996) and Peter Forster (1994) have been made to rea.s.sess Hastings Kamuzu Banda as a national leader. However, one of the most exciting developments is the emergence in Malawi of the "Kachere" series, under the general editorship of Professors Joseph C. Chakanza and K. R. Ross of the Theology and Religious Studies Department at Chancellor College, University of Malawi. Most of the "Kachere" series books deal with religion and politics and are a prime example of a successful multidisciplinary approach to studying and understanding societies in nation building. J. C. Chakanza and K. R. Ross (eds.), Religion in Malawi: An Annotated Bibliography (1998) and Christianity in Malawi: A Source Book (1996) are good introductions to the subject.

Malawi's newspapers have their own archives and are important sources of past and current information. There are five leading newspapers, and all of them have online versions: the Daily Times, the Sunday Times, and the Malawi News, all published by Blantyre Newspapers Ltd. (BNL). The other two are The Nation and the Weekend Nation owned by the Nation Publications Limited (NPL). The Malawi News Agency (MANA) of the government's Information Department also provides daily news from different parts of the country. In addition, since 2000, widely read online news outlets have emerged, the most prominent ones being the Nyasa Times, the Maravi Post, and the Malawi Voice. Two commercial radio stations, the Lilongwe-based Zodiak Broadcasting Station (http:/zodiak.malawi.com) and the Blantyre-based Capital Radio (http://www.capitalradiomalawi.com), also have online sections that extensively cover news on Malawi. Lifestyle magazines include Big Issue, Timve, Malawi Waves, and Bizcommunity.com magazine. Among the prominent professional ones are MALA Bulletin, Bwalo, Nyala, WASI, WASI Writer, Tizame, Society of Malawi Journal, Malawi Journal of Social Science, Malilime: Malawi Journal of Linguistics, the Malawian Geographer, Bunda Journal of Agricultural Research, Bunda Journal of Agriculture, Environmental Science and Technololgy, Journal of Religion in Malawi, and the Malawi Medical Journal.

A more recent source of information is the Internet, and the main Internet service providers are Malawinet Limited (http://www.malawi.net), Globe Internet (http://www.globemw.net), Malawi Sustainable Development Network Programme (http://www.sdnp..org.mw), and Syband (http://www.africa-online.net). Researchers will also find the following websites useful: Malawi Government National Statistical Office (http://www.nso.malawi.net), University of Malawi Centre for Social Research (http://www.csrunima.com), Reserve Bank of Malawi (http://www.rbc.mw), University of Malawi (http://www.unima.mw), United Nations Development Programme Malawi Office (http://www.undp.org.mw), Human Rights Commission of Malawi (http://www.malawihumanrightscommission.org), Centre for Human Rights and Rehabilitation-Malawi (http://www.chrr.or.mw), and the Episcopal conference of Malawi (http://episcopalconferenceofmalawi.org).

General General Information and Guides Agnew, S., and M. Stubbs, eds. Malawi in Maps. London: University Press, 1972.

Bailey, Bernadine. Malawi. New York: Sterling Publishing, 1973.

Bailey, Bernadine, and Mary-Anne Bartlett. Malawi. Chalfont St. Peter, England: Brandt Travel Guides, 2006.

Carter, Judy. Malawi: Wildlife, Parks and Reserves. London: Macmillan, 1987.

Catholic Secretariat of Malawi. Catholic Directory of Malawi, 19831986. Lilongwe: Catholic Secretariat of Malawi, 1985.

COMPa.s.s. Directory of CBNRM Organizations, Internal Report 4. February 2003. https://tamis.dai.com/compa.s.s.nsf/e06e1bcbfd53d83b42256b59003217d2/fc09754503131c6c42256921002f5d5b/$FILE/Internal%20Rep%2004%20-%20CBNRM%20Directory2003.doc.

Crowther, Geoff. Africa on a Shoestring. Berkeley, Calif.: Lonely Planet Publications, 1989.

Directory of Development Organizations, Vol. 1.B/Africa. Malawi. 2008. http://www.safaids.net/files/Malawi%20Directory%20of%20Development%20Organisations.pdf.

Garland, Vera, and F. Johnston. Malawi, Lake of Stars. Blantyre: Central Africana, 1993.

Howey, Linda S. A Study of Indigenous and International Non-Governmental Organizations Working in Malawi. Lilongwe: USAID, 1989.

Kandoole, B. F., and K. M. Kings. Twenty-Five Years of Independence in Malawi, 19641989. Blantyre: Dzuka Publishing, 1989.

Lane, Martha S. B. Malawi. Chicago: Children's Press, 1990.

Malawi Export Promotion Council. Malawi Buyer's Guide. Blantyre: Malawi Export Promotion Council, annually.

Malawi Government, Department of Surveys. The National Atlas of Malawi. Blantyre: Department of Surveys, 1985.

Malawi Ministry of Information. Malawi: An Official Handbook. Blantyre: Ministry of Information, annually.

---. Malawi Yearbook. Blantyre: Ministry of Information, annually.

Martin, Colin. Maps and Surveys of Malawi. Cape Town: Balkeme, 1980.

Murphy, Alan, and Nana Luckham. Zambia and Malawi. Berkeley, Calif.: Lonely Planet Publications, 2010.

Murray, Stephen. A Handbook of Nyasaland. London: Crown Agents, 1922.

National Statistics Office. Malawi Statistical Yearbook. Zomba: Government Printer, annually.

O'Toole, Thomas. Malawi in Pictures. Minneapolis, Minn.: Lerner Publications, 1988.

Demographic Facts and Figures Adams, Jimi, and Jenny Trinitapoli. "The Malawian Regional Data Collection and Selected a.n.a.lyses." Demographic Research 21 (2009): 255288.

Anglewicz, Philip. "The Malawian Diffusion and Ideational Change Project 200406." Demographic Research 20 (2009): 503540.

Benson, Todd. Malawi: An Atlas of Social Statistics. Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Inst.i.tute, c2002.

Bisika, Thomas J. et al. Population and Studies in Malawi: An Annotated Bibliography 19751999. Lilongwe: Malawi Government, Ministry of Health and Population, 2000.