Higher Lessons in English Part 40

The robin and the blue-bird, piping loud, Filled all the blossoming orchards with their glee; The sparrows chirped as if they still were proud Their race in Holy Writ should mentioned be; And hungry crows, a.s.sembled in a crowd, Clamored their piteous prayer incessantly, Knowing who hears the ravens cry, and said, "Give us, O Lord, this day, our daily bread!"

--_Longfellow_,

Better to stem with heart and hand The roaring tide of life than lie, Unmindful, on its flowery strand, Of G.o.d's occasions drifting by.

Better with naked nerve to bear The needles of this goading air Than, in the lap of sensual ease, forego The G.o.dlike power to do, the G.o.dlike aim to know.

--_Whittier_.

Then to side with Truth is n.o.ble when we share her wretched crust, Ere her cause bring fame and profit, and 't is prosperous to be just; Then it is the brave man chooses, while the coward stands aside, Doubting in his abject spirit, till his Lord is crucified.--_Lowell_.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

TO THE TEACHER.--These and similar "Exercises" are entirely outside of the regular lessons. They are offered to those teachers who may not, from lack of time or of material, find it convenient to prepare extra or miscellaneous work better suited to their own needs.

The questions appended to the following sentences are made easy of answer, but in continuing such exercises the teacher will, of course, so frame the questions as more and more to throw responsibility on the pupil.

It will be evident that this work aims not only to enforce instruction given before Lesson 17, but, by an easy and familiar examination of words and groups of words, to prepare the way for what is afterwards presented more formally and scientifically. ADAPTED FROM IRVING'S "SKETCH BOOK."

1. From this piazza the wondering Ichabod entered the hall.

2. This hall formed the center of the mansion and the place of usual residence.

3. Here, rows of resplendent pewter, ranged on a long dresser, dazzled his eyes.

4. In one corner stood a huge bag of wool ready to be spun.

5. In another corner stood a quant.i.ty of linsey-woolsey just from the loom.

6. Ears of Indian corn and strings of dried apples and peaches hung in gay festoons along the walls.

7. These were mingled with the gaud of red peppers.

8. A door left ajar gave him a peep into the best parlor.

9. In this parlor claw-footed chairs and dark mahogany tables shone like mirrors.

10. Andirons, with their accompanying shovel and tongs, glistened from their covert of asparagus tops. [Footnote: _Asparagus tops_ were commonly used to ornament the old-fashioned fireplace in summer.]

11. Mock-oranges and conch-sh.e.l.ls decorated the mantelpiece.

12. Strings of various-colored birds' eggs were suspended above it.

13. A corner-cupboard, knowingly left open, displayed immense treasures of old silver and well-mended china.

+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Find the two chief words in each of the first three sentences. As a part of the sentence what is each of these words called? To what cla.s.s of words, or part of speech, does each belong? Notice that in the fourth and the fifth sentence the subject is put after the predicate. Change the order of words and read these sentences.

Read in their regular order the two chief words of each. In the sixth sentence what word says, or a.s.serts, something about both ears and strings?

In the ninth sentence put _what_ before the predicate _shone_ and find two nouns that answer the question. In the eleventh sentence what two things does _decorated_ tell something about? In the seventh sentence _these_ stands for what two nouns, or names, found in the preceding sentence? Find the subject and the predicate of each sentence from the sixth to the thirteenth inclusive. To what cla.s.s of words does each of these chief parts belong? Find in these sentences nouns that are not subjects. Find several compound nouns the parts of which are joined with the hyphen.

_The_ and _wondering_ in the first sentence go with what noun? The group of words _from this piazza_ goes with what word? In the second sentence put _what_ before, and then after, _formed_, and find the names that answer these questions. What does _of the mansion_ go with? What does _of usual residence_ describe? In the third sentence what word tells where the dazzling occurred? Find a group of three words telling what the rows were composed of. What group of words tells the position of the rows? In the fourth sentence what group of words shows where the bag stood? _Of wool ready to be spun_ describes what? _A_ and _huge_ are attached to what?

TO THE TEACHER.--We have here suggested some of the devices by which pupils may be led to see the functions of words and phrases. We recommend that this work be varied and continued through the selection above and through others that may easily be made. Such exercises, together with the more formal and searching work of the regular lessons, will be found of incalculable value to the pupil. They will not only afford the best mental discipline but will aid greatly in getting thought and in expressing thought.

+The Force and the Beauty of the Description above.--+ Can you find any reason why we are invited to see this picture through the eyes of the interested and wondering Ichabod? Do you think the word _wondering_ well chosen and suggestive? Look through this picture carefully and tell what there is that indicates thrift, industry, and prosperity. Find more common expressions for _center of the mansion_ and _place of usual residence_.

Notice in the third sentence the effect of _resplendent_ and _dazzled_. How is a similar effect produced in the ninth and the tenth sentence? You see that this great artist in words does not here need to repeat his language.

We can easily imagine that he could produce the same effect in a great variety of ways. In the fourth sentence does the expression _ready to be spun_ tell what is actually seen, or what is only suggested? What is gained by this expression and by _just from the loom_ in the next sentence? Do you think an unskillful artist would have used _in gay festoons?_ Read the seventh and make it more common but less quaint. Do you think the picture gains, or loses, by representing the door as "ajar" instead of wide open?

Why? Can you see any similar effect from introducing _their covert_ in the tenth sentence? What does the expression _knowingly left open_ suggest to you? This selection from Irving ill.u.s.trates the +Descriptive+ style of writing.

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK.

In the description above we have taken some liberties with the original, for we have broken it up into single sentences. The parts of this picture as made by Irving were smoothly and delicately blended together.

You may rewrite this description; and, where it can be done to advantage, you may join the sentences neatly together. Perhaps some of these sentences may be changed to become parts of other sentences,

TO THE TEACHER.--It will be found profitable for pupils to break up for themselves into short sentences model selections from cla.s.sic English, and, after examining the structure and style as suggested above, to note and, so far as possible, explain how these were blended together in the original. A written reproduction of the selection may then be made from memory.

This study of the thought, the structure, and the style of the great masters in language must lead to a discriminating taste for literature; and the effect upon the pupil's own habits of thought and expression will necessarily be to lift him above the insipid, commonplace matter and language that characterize much of the so-called "original" composition work.

In the study of these selections, especially in the work of copying, the rules for punctuation, and other rules, formally stated further on, may easily be antic.i.p.ated informally.

For composition work more nearly original the cla.s.s might read together or discuss, descriptions of home scenes; then, drawing from imagination or experience, they might make descriptions of their own. In these descriptions different persons might be introduced, with their att.i.tudes, employments, and acts of hospitality.

For exercises in narration pupils might write about trips to these homes, telling about the preparation, the start, the journey, and the reception.

(For studies on narrative style, see pages 157-162.)

To insure thoroughness, all such compositions should he short.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

ADAPTED FROM IRVING'S "SKETCH BOOK."

1. Every window and crevice of the vast barn seemed bursting forth with the treasures of the farm.

2. The flail was busily resounding within from morning till night.

3. Swallows and martins skimmed twittering about the eaves.

4. Rows of pigeons were enjoying the sunshine on the roof.

5. Some sat with one eye turned up as if watching the weather.

6. Some sat with their heads under their wings or buried in their bosoms.

7. Others were swelling and cooing and bowing about their dames.

8. Sleek, unwieldy porkers were grunting in the repose and abundance of their pens.

9. From these pens sallied forth, now and then, troops of sucking pigs, as if to snuff the air.

10. A stately squadron of snowy geese was riding in an adjoining pond, convoying whole fleets of ducks.

11. Regiments of turkeys were gobbling through the farmyard.

12. Guinea fowls fretted about, like ill-tempered housewives, with their peevish, discontented cry.

13. Before the barn-door strutted the gallant c.o.c.k, clapping his burnished wings, and crowing in the pride and gladness of his heart--sometimes tearing up the earth with his feet, and then generously calling his ever-hungry family of wives and children to enjoy the rich morsel which he had discovered.

+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--In the first sentence _seemed_ a.s.serts something about what two things? _Every_ goes with what word or words? What word or words does the phrase _of the vast barn_ make more definite in meaning? The two words _window_ and _crevice_ are joined together by what word? The group of words _bursting forth with the treasures of the farm_ describes what? Notice that _bursting_ also helps _seemed_ to say something about window and crevice. _Seemed_ does not make sense, but _seemed bursting_ does. What does _forth_ modify? What does _with the treasures of the farm_ modify? In the third sentence what two nouns form the subject of _skimmed?_ What connects these two nouns? In the fourth what word tells what the rows were enjoying? In the fifth _turned up as if watching the weather_ describes what? _As if watching the weather_ goes with what? The expression introduced by _as if_ is a shortened form.

Putting in some of the words omitted, we have _as if they were watching the weather. They were watching the weather_, if standing by itself, would make a complete sentence. You see that one sentence may be made a part of another sentence. What does each of the two phrases _under their wings_ and _buried in their bosoms_ describe? What connects these two phrases? In the seventh sentence _were_ is understood before _cooing_ and before _bowing_.

How many predicate verbs do you find, each a.s.serting something about the pigeons represented by _others_? Why are these verbs not separated by commas? What two nouns form the princ.i.p.al part of the phrase in the eighth sentence? What connects these two nouns? Read the ninth sentence and put the subject before the predicate. You may now explain _as if to snuff the air_, remembering that a similar expression in the fifth sentence was explained. In the tenth sentence _convoying whole fleets of ducks_ describes what? Does _convoying_ a.s.sert anything about the squadron? Change it into a predicate verb. In the twelfth sentence find one word and two phrases joined to _fretted_. _Clapping, crowing, tearing_, and _calling_, in the thirteenth, all describe what? Notice that all the other words following the subject go with these four. Find the three words that answer the questions made by putting _what_ after _clapping, tearing, calling_.

What phrase tells the cause of crowing? The phrase _to enjoy the rich morsel which he had discovered_ tells the purpose of what? _Which he had discovered_ limits the meaning of what? The p.r.o.noun _which_ here stands for _morsel_. _Which he had discovered_ = _He had discovered morsel_. Here you will see a sentence has again been made a part of another sentence. Notice that without _which_ there would be no connection.

TO THE TEACHER.--It may be well to let the pupils complete the examination of the structure of the sentences above and point out nouns, verbs, p.r.o.nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.

It will be noticed that in the questions above we especially antic.i.p.ate the regular lessons that follow Lesson 27. This we do in all such "Exercises."

+The Beauty and the Force of the Description above+.--Why may we say that this farmyard scene is surrounded by an atmosphere of plenty, happiness, and content? Which do you prefer, the first sentence above, or this subst.i.tute for it: "The large barn was entirely full of the products of the farm"? Give every reason that you can find for your preference. We often speak of a barn or storehouse as "bursting with plenty," or of a table as "groaning with a load of good things," when there is really no bursting nor groaning. Such expressions are called +Figures of Speech+. Examine the second sentence and compare it with the following: "The men were busy all day pounding out the grain with flails." Do the words _busily resounding_ joined to _flail_ bring into our imagination men, grain, pounding, sound, and perhaps other things? A good description mentions such things and uses such words as will help us to see in imagination many things not mentioned.

In the third sentence would you prefer _skimmed_ to _flew_? Why? Compare the eighth sentence with this: "Large fat hogs were grunting in their pens and reposing quietly with an abundant supply of food." _Sleek, unwieldy porkers_ would be too high-sounding an expression for you to use ordinarily, but it is in tone with the rest of the description. _In the repose and abundance of their pens_ is much better than the words subst.i.tuted above. It is shorter and stronger. It uses instead of the verb _reposing_ and the adjective _abundant_ the nouns _repose_ and _abundance_, and makes these the princ.i.p.al words in the phrase. Repose and abundance are thus made the striking features of the pen. Arrange the ninth sentence in as many ways as possible and tell which way you prefer. Is a real squadron referred to in the tenth sentence? and were the geese actually convoying fleets? These are figurative uses of words. What can you say of _regiments_ in the eleventh? In the twelfth Guinea fowls are compared to housewives.

Except in this one fancied resemblance the two are wholly unlike. Such comparisons frequently made by _as_ and _like_ are called +Similes+. If we leave out _like_ and say, "Guinea fowls are fretting housewives," we have a figure of speech called +Metaphor+. This figure is used above when flocks are called "squadrons" and "fleets." In the thirteenth sentence notice how well chosen and forceful are the words _strutted, gallant, burnished, generously, ever-hungry, rich morsel_. See whether you can find subst.i.tutes for these italicized words. Were the wings actually burnished? What can you say of this use of _burnished_?

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK.

The sentences in the description above, when read together, have a somewhat broken or jerky effect. You may unite smoothly such as should be joined.

The fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh can all be put into one. There is danger of making your sentences too long. Young writers find it difficult to make very long sentences perfectly clear in meaning.