Guns, Germs And Steel Part 19

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

IT IS A PLEASURE FOR ME TO ACKNOWLEDGE THE CONTRIBUTIONS of many people to this book. My teachers at Roxbury Latin School introduced me to the fascination of history. My great debt to my many New Guinea friends will be obvious from the frequency with which I cite their experiences. I owe an equally great debt (and absolution from responsibility for my errors) to my many scientist friends and professional colleagues, who patiently explained the subtleties of their subjects and read my drafts. In particular, Peter Bellwood, Kent Flannery, Patrick Kirch, and my wife, Marie Cohen, read the whole ma.n.u.script, and Charles Heiser, Jr., David Keightley, Bruce Smith, Richard Yarnell, and Daniel Zohary each read several chapters. Earlier versions of several of the chapters appeared as articles in of many people to this book. My teachers at Roxbury Latin School introduced me to the fascination of history. My great debt to my many New Guinea friends will be obvious from the frequency with which I cite their experiences. I owe an equally great debt (and absolution from responsibility for my errors) to my many scientist friends and professional colleagues, who patiently explained the subtleties of their subjects and read my drafts. In particular, Peter Bellwood, Kent Flannery, Patrick Kirch, and my wife, Marie Cohen, read the whole ma.n.u.script, and Charles Heiser, Jr., David Keightley, Bruce Smith, Richard Yarnell, and Daniel Zohary each read several chapters. Earlier versions of several of the chapters appeared as articles in Discover Discover magazine and in magazine and in Natural History Natural History magazine. The National Geographic Society, World Wildlife Fund, and University of California at Los Angeles supported my fieldwork on Pacific islands. I have been fortunate to have John Brockman and Katinka Matson as my agents, Lori Iversen and Lori Rosen as my research a.s.sistants and secretaries, Ellen Modecki as my ill.u.s.trator, and as my editors Donald Lamm at W. W. Norton, Neil Belton and Will Sulkin at Jonathan Cape, Willi Kohler at Fischer, Marc Zabludoff and Mark Wheeler and Polly Shulman at magazine. The National Geographic Society, World Wildlife Fund, and University of California at Los Angeles supported my fieldwork on Pacific islands. I have been fortunate to have John Brockman and Katinka Matson as my agents, Lori Iversen and Lori Rosen as my research a.s.sistants and secretaries, Ellen Modecki as my ill.u.s.trator, and as my editors Donald Lamm at W. W. Norton, Neil Belton and Will Sulkin at Jonathan Cape, Willi Kohler at Fischer, Marc Zabludoff and Mark Wheeler and Polly Shulman at Discover Discover, and Ellen Goldensohn and Alan Ternes at Natural History Natural History.

FURTHER R READINGS

THESE SUGGESTIONS ARE FOR THOSE INTERESTED IN READING further. Hence, in addition to key books and papers, I have favored references that provide comprehensive listings of the earlier literature. A journal t.i.tle (in italics) is followed by the volume number, followed after a colon by the first and last page numbers, and then the year of publication in parentheses. further. Hence, in addition to key books and papers, I have favored references that provide comprehensive listings of the earlier literature. A journal t.i.tle (in italics) is followed by the volume number, followed after a colon by the first and last page numbers, and then the year of publication in parentheses.

Prologue

Among references relevant to most chapters of this book is an enormous compendium of human gene frequencies ent.i.tled The History and Geography of Human Genes The History and Geography of Human Genes, by L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, and Alberto Piazza (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994). This remarkable book approximates a history of everything about everybody, because the authors begin their accounts of each continent with a convenient summary of the continent's geography, ecology, and environment, followed by the prehistory, history, languages, physical anthropology, and culture of its peoples. L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza and Francisco Cavalli-Sforza, The Great Human Diasporas The Great Human Diasporas (Reading, Ma.s.s.: Addison-Wesley, 1995), covers similar material but is written for the general reader rather than for specialists. (Reading, Ma.s.s.: Addison-Wesley, 1995), covers similar material but is written for the general reader rather than for specialists.

Another convenient source is a series of five volumes ent.i.tled The Ill.u.s.trated History of Humankind The Ill.u.s.trated History of Humankind, ed. Goran Burenhult (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 199394). The five individual volumes in this series are ent.i.tled, respectively, The First Humans, People of the Stone Age, Old World Civilizations, New World and Pacific Civilizations The First Humans, People of the Stone Age, Old World Civilizations, New World and Pacific Civilizations, and Traditional Peoples Today Traditional Peoples Today.

Several series of volumes published by Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, England, various dates) provide histories of particular regions or eras. One series consists of books ent.i.tled The Cambridge History of [X] The Cambridge History of [X], where X X is variously Africa, Early Inner Asia, China, India, Iran, Islam, j.a.pan, Latin America, Poland, and Southeast Asia. Another series is is variously Africa, Early Inner Asia, China, India, Iran, Islam, j.a.pan, Latin America, Poland, and Southeast Asia. Another series is The Cambridge Encyclopedia of [X] The Cambridge Encyclopedia of [X], where X X is variously Africa, China, j.a.pan, Latin America and the Caribbean, Russia and the former Soviet Union, Australia, the Middle East and North Africa, and India, Pakistan, and adjacent countries. Still other series include is variously Africa, China, j.a.pan, Latin America and the Caribbean, Russia and the former Soviet Union, Australia, the Middle East and North Africa, and India, Pakistan, and adjacent countries. Still other series include The Cambridge Ancient History, The Cambridge Medieval History, The Cambridge Modern History, The Cambridge Economic History of Europe The Cambridge Ancient History, The Cambridge Medieval History, The Cambridge Modern History, The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, and The Cambridge Economic History of India The Cambridge Economic History of India.

Three encyclopedic accounts of the world's languages are Barbara Grimes, Ethnologue: Languages of the World Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 13th ed. (Dallas: Summer Inst.i.tute of Linguistics, 1996), Merritt Ruhlen, A Guide to the World's Languages A Guide to the World's Languages, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987), and C. F. Voegelin and F. M. Voegelin, Cla.s.sification and Index of the World's Languages Cla.s.sification and Index of the World's Languages (New York: Elsevier, 1977). (New York: Elsevier, 1977).

Among large-scale comparative histories, Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History A Study of History, 12 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 193454), stands out. An excellent history of Eurasian civilization, especially western Eurasian civilization, is William McNeill, The Rise of the West The Rise of the West (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). The same author's (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). The same author's A World History A World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), despite its t.i.tle, also maintains a focus on western Eurasian civilization, as does V. Gordon Childe, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), despite its t.i.tle, also maintains a focus on western Eurasian civilization, as does V. Gordon Childe, What Happened in History What Happened in History, rev. ed. (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1954). Another comparative history with a focus on western Eurasia, C. D. Darlington, The Evolution of Man and Society The Evolution of Man and Society (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969), is by a biologist who recognizes some of the same links between continental history and domestication that I discuss. Two books by Alfred Crosby are distinguished studies of the European overseas expansion with emphasis on its accompanying plants, animals, and germs: (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969), is by a biologist who recognizes some of the same links between continental history and domestication that I discuss. Two books by Alfred Crosby are distinguished studies of the European overseas expansion with emphasis on its accompanying plants, animals, and germs: The Columbian Exchange: Biological Consequences of 1492 The Columbian Exchange: Biological Consequences of 1492 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1972) and (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1972) and Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 9001900 Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 9001900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Marvin Harris, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Marvin Harris, Cannibals and Kings: The Origins of Cultures Cannibals and Kings: The Origins of Cultures (New York: Vintage Books, 1978), and Marshall Sahlins and Elman Service, eds., (New York: Vintage Books, 1978), and Marshall Sahlins and Elman Service, eds., Evolution and Culture Evolution and Culture (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1960), are comparative histories from the perspective of cultural anthropologists. Ellen Semple, (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1960), are comparative histories from the perspective of cultural anthropologists. Ellen Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment Influences of Geographic Environment (New York: Holt, 1911), is an example of earlier efforts to study geographic influences on human societies. Other important historical studies are listed under further readings for the Epilogue. My book (New York: Holt, 1911), is an example of earlier efforts to study geographic influences on human societies. Other important historical studies are listed under further readings for the Epilogue. My book The Third Chimpanzee The Third Chimpanzee (New York: HarperCollins, 1992), especially its chapter 14, on the comparative histories of Eurasia and the Americas, provided the starting point for my thinking about the present book. (New York: HarperCollins, 1992), especially its chapter 14, on the comparative histories of Eurasia and the Americas, provided the starting point for my thinking about the present book.

The best-known or most notorious recent entrant into the debate about group differences in intelligence is Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Cla.s.s Structure in American Life The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Cla.s.s Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994). (New York: Free Press, 1994).

Chapter 1 Excellent books about early human evolution include Richard Klein, The Human Career The Human Career (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), Roger Lewin, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), Roger Lewin, Bones of Contention Bones of Contention (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989), Paul Mellars and Chris Stringer, eds., (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989), Paul Mellars and Chris Stringer, eds., The Human Revolution: Behavioural and Biological Perspectives on the Origins of Modern Humans The Human Revolution: Behavioural and Biological Perspectives on the Origins of Modern Humans (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1989), Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin, (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1989), Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin, Origins Reconsidered Origins Reconsidered (New York: Doubleday, 1992), D. Tab Rasmussen, ed., (New York: Doubleday, 1992), D. Tab Rasmussen, ed., The Origin and Evolution of Humans and Humanness The Origin and Evolution of Humans and Humanness (Boston: Jones and Bartlett, 1993), Matthew Nitecki and Doris Nitecki, eds., (Boston: Jones and Bartlett, 1993), Matthew Nitecki and Doris Nitecki, eds., Origins of Anatomically Modern Humans Origins of Anatomically Modern Humans (New York: Plenum, 1994), and Chris Stringer and Robin McKie, (New York: Plenum, 1994), and Chris Stringer and Robin McKie, African Exodus African Exodus (London: Jonathan Cape, 1996). Three popular books dealing specifically with the Neanderthals are Christopher Stringer and Clive Gamble, (London: Jonathan Cape, 1996). Three popular books dealing specifically with the Neanderthals are Christopher Stringer and Clive Gamble, In Search of the Neanderthals In Search of the Neanderthals (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1993), Erik Trinkaus and Pat Shipman, (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1993), Erik Trinkaus and Pat Shipman, The Neandertals The Neandertals (New York: Knopf, 1993), and Ian Tattersall, (New York: Knopf, 1993), and Ian Tattersall, The Last Neanderthal The Last Neanderthal (New York: Macmillan, 1995). (New York: Macmillan, 1995).

Genetic evidence of human origins is the subject of the two books by L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza et al. already cited under the Prologue, and of chapter 1 of my book The Third Chimpanzee The Third Chimpanzee. Two technical papers with recent advances in the genetic evidence are J. L. Mountain and L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, "Inference of human evolution through cladistic a.n.a.lysis of nuclear DNA restriction polymorphism," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91:651519 (1994), and D. B. Goldstein et al., "Genetic absolute dating based on microsatellites and the origin of modern humans," ibid. 92:672327 (1995). 91:651519 (1994), and D. B. Goldstein et al., "Genetic absolute dating based on microsatellites and the origin of modern humans," ibid. 92:672327 (1995).

References to the human colonization of Australia, New Guinea, and the Bismarck and Solomon Archipelagoes, and to extinctions of large animals there, are listed under further readings for Chapter 15. In particular, Tim Flannery, The Future Eaters The Future Eaters (New York: Braziller, 1995), discusses those subjects in clear, understandable terms and explains the problems with claims of very recent survival of extinct big Australian mammals. (New York: Braziller, 1995), discusses those subjects in clear, understandable terms and explains the problems with claims of very recent survival of extinct big Australian mammals.

The standard text on Late Pleistocene and Recent extinctions of large animals is Paul Martin and Richard Klein, eds., Quaternary Extinctions Quaternary Extinctions (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1984). More recent updates are Richard Klein, "The impact of early people on the environment: The case of large mammal extinctions," pp. 1334 in J. E. Jacobsen and J. Firor, (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1984). More recent updates are Richard Klein, "The impact of early people on the environment: The case of large mammal extinctions," pp. 1334 in J. E. Jacobsen and J. Firor, Human Impact on the Environment Human Impact on the Environment (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1992), and Anthony Stuart, "Mammalian extinctions in the Late Pleistocene of Northern Eurasia and North America," (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1992), and Anthony Stuart, "Mammalian extinctions in the Late Pleistocene of Northern Eurasia and North America," Biological Reviews Biological Reviews 66:45362 (1991). David Steadman summarizes recent evidence that extinction waves accompanied human settlement of Pacific islands in his paper "Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific island birds: Biodiversity meets zooarchaeology," 66:45362 (1991). David Steadman summarizes recent evidence that extinction waves accompanied human settlement of Pacific islands in his paper "Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific island birds: Biodiversity meets zooarchaeology," Science Science 267:112331 (1995). 267:112331 (1995).

Popular accounts of the settlement of the Americas, the accompanying extinctions of large mammals, and the resulting controversies are Brian f.a.gan, The Great Journey: The Peopling of Ancient America The Great Journey: The Peopling of Ancient America (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1987), and chapter 18 of my book (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1987), and chapter 18 of my book The Third Chimpanzee The Third Chimpanzee, both of which provide many other references. Ronald Carlisle, ed., Americans before Columbus: Ice-Age Origins Americans before Columbus: Ice-Age Origins (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1988), includes a chapter by J. M. Adovasio and his colleagues on pre-Clovis evidence at the Meadowcroft site. Papers by C. Vance Haynes, Jr., an expert on the Clovis horizon and reported pre-Clovis sites, include "Contributions of radiocarbon dating to the geochronology of the peopling of the New World," pp. 35474 in R. E. Taylor, A. Long, and R. S. Kra, eds., (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1988), includes a chapter by J. M. Adovasio and his colleagues on pre-Clovis evidence at the Meadowcroft site. Papers by C. Vance Haynes, Jr., an expert on the Clovis horizon and reported pre-Clovis sites, include "Contributions of radiocarbon dating to the geochronology of the peopling of the New World," pp. 35474 in R. E. Taylor, A. Long, and R. S. Kra, eds., Radiocarbon after Four Decades Radiocarbon after Four Decades (New York: Springer, 1992), and "Clovis-Folson geochronology and climate change," pp. 21936 in Olga Soffer and N. D. Praslov, eds., (New York: Springer, 1992), and "Clovis-Folson geochronology and climate change," pp. 21936 in Olga Soffer and N. D. Praslov, eds., From Kostenki to Clovis: Upper Paleolithic Paleo-Indian Adaptations From Kostenki to Clovis: Upper Paleolithic Paleo-Indian Adaptations (New York: Plenum, 1993). Pre-Clovis claims for the Pedra Furada site are argued by N. Guidon and G. Delibrias, "Carbon-14 dates point to man in the Americas 32,000 years ago," (New York: Plenum, 1993). Pre-Clovis claims for the Pedra Furada site are argued by N. Guidon and G. Delibrias, "Carbon-14 dates point to man in the Americas 32,000 years ago," Nature Nature 321:76971 (1986), and David Meltzer et al., "On a Pleistocene human occupation at Pedra Furada, Brazil," 321:76971 (1986), and David Meltzer et al., "On a Pleistocene human occupation at Pedra Furada, Brazil," Antiquity Antiquity 68:695714 (1994). Other publications relevant to the pre-Clovis debate include T. D. Dillehay et al., "Earliest hunters and gatherers of South America," 68:695714 (1994). Other publications relevant to the pre-Clovis debate include T. D. Dillehay et al., "Earliest hunters and gatherers of South America," Journal of World Prehistory Journal of World Prehistory 6:145204 (1992), T. D. Dillehay, 6:145204 (1992), T. D. Dillehay, Monte Verde: A Late Pleistocene Site in Chile Monte Verde: A Late Pleistocene Site in Chile (Washington, D.C.; Smithsonian Inst.i.tution Press, 1989), T. D. Dillehay and D. J. Meltzer, eds., (Washington, D.C.; Smithsonian Inst.i.tution Press, 1989), T. D. Dillehay and D. J. Meltzer, eds., The First Americans: Search and Research The First Americans: Search and Research (Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1991), Thomas Lynch "Glacial-age man in South America?-a critical review," (Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1991), Thomas Lynch "Glacial-age man in South America?-a critical review," American Antiquity American Antiquity 55:1236 (1990), John Hoff.e.c.ker et al., "The colonization of Beringia and the peopling of the New World," 55:1236 (1990), John Hoff.e.c.ker et al., "The colonization of Beringia and the peopling of the New World," Science Science 259:4653 (1993), and A. C. Roosevelt et al., "Paleoindian cave dwellers in the Amazon: The peopling of the Americas," 259:4653 (1993), and A. C. Roosevelt et al., "Paleoindian cave dwellers in the Amazon: The peopling of the Americas," Science Science 272:37384 (1996). 272:37384 (1996).

Chapter 2 Two outstanding books explicitly concerned with cultural differences among Polynesian islands are Patrick Kirch, The Evolution of the Polynesian Chiefdoms The Evolution of the Polynesian Chiefdoms (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), and the same author's (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), and the same author's The Wet and the Dry The Wet and the Dry (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994). Much of Peter Bellwood's (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994). Much of Peter Bellwood's The Polynesians The Polynesians, rev. ed. (London: Thames and Hudson, 1987), also deals with this problem. Notable books dealing with specific Polynesian islands include Michael King, Moriori Moriori (Auckland: Penguin, 1989), on the Chatham Islands, Patrick Kirch, (Auckland: Penguin, 1989), on the Chatham Islands, Patrick Kirch, Feathered G.o.ds and Fishhooks Feathered G.o.ds and Fishhooks (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985), on Hawaii, Patrick Kirch and Marshall Sahlins, (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985), on Hawaii, Patrick Kirch and Marshall Sahlins, Anahulu Anahulu (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), also on Hawaii, Jo Anne Van Tilburg, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), also on Hawaii, Jo Anne Van Tilburg, Easter Island Easter Island (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Inst.i.tution Press, 1994), and Paul Bahn and John Flenley, (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Inst.i.tution Press, 1994), and Paul Bahn and John Flenley, Easter Island, Earth Island Easter Island, Earth Island (London: Thames and Hudson, 1992). (London: Thames and Hudson, 1992).

Chapter 3 My account of Pizarro's capture of Atahuallpa combines the eyewitness accounts by Francisco Pizarro's brothers Hernando Pizarro and Pedro Pizarro and by Pizarro's companions Miguel de Estete, Cristobal de Mena, Ruiz de Arce, and Francisco de Xerez. The accounts by Hernando Pizarro, Miguel de Estete, and Francisco de Xerez have been translated by Clements Markham, Reports on the Discovery of Peru Reports on the Discovery of Peru, Hakluyt Society, 1st ser., vol. 47 (New York, 1872); Pedro Pizarro's account, by Philip Means, Relation of the Discovery and Conquest of the Kingdoms of Peru Relation of the Discovery and Conquest of the Kingdoms of Peru (New York: Cortes Society, 1921); and Cristobal de Mena's account, by Joseph Sinclair, (New York: Cortes Society, 1921); and Cristobal de Mena's account, by Joseph Sinclair, The Conquest of Peru, as Recorded by a Member of the Pizarro Expedition The Conquest of Peru, as Recorded by a Member of the Pizarro Expedition (New York, 1929). The account by Ruiz de Arce was reprinted in (New York, 1929). The account by Ruiz de Arce was reprinted in Boletin de la Real Academia de Historia Boletin de la Real Academia de Historia (Madrid) 102:32784 (1933). John Hemming's excellent (Madrid) 102:32784 (1933). John Hemming's excellent The Conquest of the Incas The Conquest of the Incas (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970) gives a full account of the capture and indeed of the whole conquest, with an extensive bibliography. A 19th-century account of the conquest, William H. Prescott's (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970) gives a full account of the capture and indeed of the whole conquest, with an extensive bibliography. A 19th-century account of the conquest, William H. Prescott's History of the Conquest of Peru History of the Conquest of Peru (New York, 1847), is still highly readable and ranks among the cla.s.sics of historical writing. Corresponding modern and cla.s.sic 19th-century accounts of the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs are, respectively, Hugh Thomas, (New York, 1847), is still highly readable and ranks among the cla.s.sics of historical writing. Corresponding modern and cla.s.sic 19th-century accounts of the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs are, respectively, Hugh Thomas, Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes, and the Fall of Old Mexico Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes, and the Fall of Old Mexico (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993), and William Prescott, (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993), and William Prescott, History of the Conquest of Mexico History of the Conquest of Mexico (New York, 1843). Contemporary eyewitness accounts of the conquest of the Aztecs were written by Cortes himself (reprinted as Hernando Cortes, (New York, 1843). Contemporary eyewitness accounts of the conquest of the Aztecs were written by Cortes himself (reprinted as Hernando Cortes, Five Letters of Cortes to the Emperor Five Letters of Cortes to the Emperor [New York: Norton, 1969]) and by many of Cortes's companions (reprinted in Patricia de Fuentes, ed., [New York: Norton, 1969]) and by many of Cortes's companions (reprinted in Patricia de Fuentes, ed., The Conquistadors The Conquistadors [Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993]). [Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993]).

Chapters 410 References for these seven chapters on food production will be combined, since many of the references apply to more than one of them.

Five important sources, all of them excellent and fact-filled, address the question how food production evolved from the hunter-gatherer lifestyle: Kent Flannery, "The origins of agriculture," Annual Reviews of Anthropology Annual Reviews of Anthropology 2:271310 (1973); Jack Harlan, 2:271310 (1973); Jack Harlan, Crops and Man Crops and Man, 2nd ed. (Madison, Wis.: American Society of Agronomy, 1992); Richard MacNeish, The Origins of Agriculture and Settled Life The Origins of Agriculture and Settled Life (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992); David Rindos, (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992); David Rindos, The Origins of Agriculture: An Evolutionary Perspective The Origins of Agriculture: An Evolutionary Perspective (San Diego: Academic Press, 1984); and Bruce Smith, (San Diego: Academic Press, 1984); and Bruce Smith, The Emergence of Agriculture The Emergence of Agriculture (New York: Scientific American Library, 1995). Notable older references about food production in general include two multi-author volumes: Peter Ucko and G. W. Dimbleby, eds., (New York: Scientific American Library, 1995). Notable older references about food production in general include two multi-author volumes: Peter Ucko and G. W. Dimbleby, eds., The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals (Chicago: Aldine, 1969), and Charles Reed, ed., (Chicago: Aldine, 1969), and Charles Reed, ed., Origins of Agriculture Origins of Agriculture (The Hague: Mouton, 1977). Carl Sauer, (The Hague: Mouton, 1977). Carl Sauer, Agricultural Origins and Dispersals Agricultural Origins and Dispersals (New York: American Geographical Society, 1952), is a cla.s.sic early comparison of Old World and New World food production, while Erich Isaac, (New York: American Geographical Society, 1952), is a cla.s.sic early comparison of Old World and New World food production, while Erich Isaac, Geography of Domestication Geography of Domestication (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), addresses the questions of where, when, and how regarding plant and animal domestication. (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), addresses the questions of where, when, and how regarding plant and animal domestication.

Among references specifically about plant domestication, Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, Domestication of Plants in the Old World Domestication of Plants in the Old World, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), stands out. It provides the most detailed account of plant domestication available for any part of the world. For each significant crop grown in western Eurasia, the book summarizes archaeological and genetic evidence about its domestication and subsequent spread.

Among important multi-author books on plant domestication are C. Wesley Cowan and Patty Jo Watson, eds., The Origins of Agriculture The Origins of Agriculture (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Inst.i.tution Press, 1992), David Harris and Gordon Hillman, eds., (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Inst.i.tution Press, 1992), David Harris and Gordon Hillman, eds., Foraging and Farming: The Evolution of Plant Exploitation Foraging and Farming: The Evolution of Plant Exploitation (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989), and C. Barigozzi, ed., (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989), and C. Barigozzi, ed., The Origin and Domestication of Cultivated Plants The Origin and Domestication of Cultivated Plants (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1986). Two engaging popular accounts of plant domestication by Charles Heiser, Jr., are (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1986). Two engaging popular accounts of plant domestication by Charles Heiser, Jr., are Seed to Civilization: The Story of Food Seed to Civilization: The Story of Food, 3rd ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), and Of Plants and People Of Plants and People (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985). J. Smartt and N. W. Simmonds, ed., (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985). J. Smartt and N. W. Simmonds, ed., Evolution of Crop Plants Evolution of Crop Plants, 2nd ed. (London: Longman, 1995), is the standard reference volume summarizing information about all of the world's major crops and many minor ones. Three excellent papers describe the changes that evolve automatically in wild plants under human cultivation: Mark Blumler and Roger Byrne, "The ecological genetics of domestication and the origins of agriculture," Current Anthropology Current Anthropology 32:2354 (1991); Charles Heiser, Jr., "Aspects of unconscious selection and the evolution of domesticated plants," 32:2354 (1991); Charles Heiser, Jr., "Aspects of unconscious selection and the evolution of domesticated plants," Euphytica Euphytica 37:7781 (1988); and Daniel Zohary, "Modes of evolution in plants under domestication," in W. F. Grant, ed., 37:7781 (1988); and Daniel Zohary, "Modes of evolution in plants under domestication," in W. F. Grant, ed., Plant Biosystematics Plant Biosystematics (Montreal: Academic Press, 1984). Mark Blumler, "Independent inventionism and recent genetic evidence on plant domestication," (Montreal: Academic Press, 1984). Mark Blumler, "Independent inventionism and recent genetic evidence on plant domestication," Economic Botany Economic Botany 46:98111 (1992), evaluates the evidence for multiple domestications of the same wild plant species, as opposed to single origins followed by spread. 46:98111 (1992), evaluates the evidence for multiple domestications of the same wild plant species, as opposed to single origins followed by spread.

Among writings of general interest in connection with animal domestication, the standard encyclopedic reference work to the world's wild mammals is Ronald Nowak, ed., Walker's Mammals of the World Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991). Juliet Clutton-Brock, Domesticated Animals from Early Times Domesticated Animals from Early Times (London: British Museum [Natural History], 1981), gives an excellent summary of all important domesticated mammals. I. L. Mason, ed., (London: British Museum [Natural History], 1981), gives an excellent summary of all important domesticated mammals. I. L. Mason, ed., Evolution of Domesticated Animals Evolution of Domesticated Animals (London: Longman, 1984), is a multi-author volume discussing each significant domesticated animal individually. Simon Davis, (London: Longman, 1984), is a multi-author volume discussing each significant domesticated animal individually. Simon Davis, The Archaeology of Animals The Archaeology of Animals (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), provides an excellent account of what can be learned from mammal bones in archaeological sites. Juliet Clutton-Brock, ed., (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), provides an excellent account of what can be learned from mammal bones in archaeological sites. Juliet Clutton-Brock, ed., The Walking Larder The Walking Larder (London: Unwin-Hyman, 1989), presents 31 papers about how humans have domesticated, herded, hunted, and been hunted by animals around the world. A comprehensive book in German about domesticated animals is Wolf Herre and Manfred Rohrs, (London: Unwin-Hyman, 1989), presents 31 papers about how humans have domesticated, herded, hunted, and been hunted by animals around the world. A comprehensive book in German about domesticated animals is Wolf Herre and Manfred Rohrs, Haustiere zoologisch gesehen Haustiere zoologisch gesehen (Stuttgart: Fischer, 1990). Stephen Budiansky, (Stuttgart: Fischer, 1990). Stephen Budiansky, The Covenant of the Wild The Covenant of the Wild (New York: William Morrow, 1992), is a popular account of how animal domestication evolved automatically from relationships between humans and animals. An important paper on how domestic animals became used for plowing, transport, wool, and milk is Andrew Sheratt, "Plough and pastoralism: Aspects of the secondary products revolution," pp. 261305 in Ian Hodder et al., eds., (New York: William Morrow, 1992), is a popular account of how animal domestication evolved automatically from relationships between humans and animals. An important paper on how domestic animals became used for plowing, transport, wool, and milk is Andrew Sheratt, "Plough and pastoralism: Aspects of the secondary products revolution," pp. 261305 in Ian Hodder et al., eds., Pattern of the Past Pattern of the Past (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).

Accounts of food production in particular areas of the world include a deliciously detailed mini-encyclopedia of Roman agricultural practices, Pliny, Natural History Natural History, vols. 1719 (Latin text side-by-side with English translation in the Loeb Cla.s.sical Library edition [Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961]); Albert Ammerman and L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, The Neolithic Transition and the Genetics of Populations in Europe The Neolithic Transition and the Genetics of Populations in Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), a.n.a.lyzing the spread of food production from the Fertile Crescent westward across Europe; Graeme Barker, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), a.n.a.lyzing the spread of food production from the Fertile Crescent westward across Europe; Graeme Barker, Prehistoric Farming in Europe Prehistoric Farming in Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), and Alasdair Whittle, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), and Alasdair Whittle, Neolithic Europe: A Survey Neolithic Europe: A Survey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), for Europe; Donald Henry, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), for Europe; Donald Henry, From Foraging to Agriculture: The Levant at the End of the Ice Age From Foraging to Agriculture: The Levant at the End of the Ice Age (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), for the lands bordering the eastern sh.o.r.e of the Mediterranean; and D. E. Yen, "Domestication: Lessons from New Guinea," pp. 55869 in Andrew Pawley, ed., (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), for the lands bordering the eastern sh.o.r.e of the Mediterranean; and D. E. Yen, "Domestication: Lessons from New Guinea," pp. 55869 in Andrew Pawley, ed., Man and a Half Man and a Half (Auckland: Polynesian Society, 1991), for New Guinea. Edward Schafer, (Auckland: Polynesian Society, 1991), for New Guinea. Edward Schafer, The Golden Peaches of Samarkand The Golden Peaches of Samarkand (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), describes the animals, plants, and other things imported into China during the T'ang dynasty. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), describes the animals, plants, and other things imported into China during the T'ang dynasty.

The following are accounts of plant domestication and crops in specific parts of the world. For Europe and the Fertile Crescent: Willem van Zeist et al., eds., Progress in Old World Palaeoethn.o.botany Progress in Old World Palaeoethn.o.botany (Rotterdam: Balkema, 1991), and Jane Renfrew, (Rotterdam: Balkema, 1991), and Jane Renfrew, Paleoethn.o.botany Paleoethn.o.botany (London: Methuen, 1973). For the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley, and for the Indian subcontinent in general: Steven Weber, (London: Methuen, 1973). For the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley, and for the Indian subcontinent in general: Steven Weber, Plants and Harappan Subsistence Plants and Harappan Subsistence (New Delhi: American Inst.i.tute of Indian Studies, 1991). For New World crops: Charles Heiser, Jr., "New perspectives on the origin and evolution of New World domesticated plants: Summary," (New Delhi: American Inst.i.tute of Indian Studies, 1991). For New World crops: Charles Heiser, Jr., "New perspectives on the origin and evolution of New World domesticated plants: Summary," Economic Botany Economic Botany 44(3 suppl.): 11116 (1990), and the same author's "Origins of some cultivated New World plants," 44(3 suppl.): 11116 (1990), and the same author's "Origins of some cultivated New World plants," Annual Reviews of Ecology and Systematics Annual Reviews of Ecology and Systematics 10:30926 (1979). For a Mexican site that may doc.u.ment the transition from hunting-gathering to early agriculture in Mesoamerica: Kent Flannery, ed., 10:30926 (1979). For a Mexican site that may doc.u.ment the transition from hunting-gathering to early agriculture in Mesoamerica: Kent Flannery, ed., Guila Naquitz Guila Naquitz (New York: Academic Press, 1986). For an account of crops grown in the Andes during Inca times, and their potential uses today: National Research Council, (New York: Academic Press, 1986). For an account of crops grown in the Andes during Inca times, and their potential uses today: National Research Council, Lost Crops of the Incas Lost Crops of the Incas (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1989). For plant domestication in the eastern and / or southwestern United States: Bruce Smith "Origins of agriculture in eastern North America," (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1989). For plant domestication in the eastern and / or southwestern United States: Bruce Smith "Origins of agriculture in eastern North America," Science Science 246:156671 (1989); William Keegan, ed., 246:156671 (1989); William Keegan, ed., Emergent Horticultural Economies of the Eastern Woodlands Emergent Horticultural Economies of the Eastern Woodlands (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University, 1987); Richard Ford, ed., (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University, 1987); Richard Ford, ed., Prehistoric Food Production in North America Prehistoric Food Production in North America (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology, 1985); and R. G. Matson, (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology, 1985); and R. G. Matson, The Origins of Southwestern Agriculture The Origins of Southwestern Agriculture (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991). Bruce Smith, "The origins of agriculture in the Americas," (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991). Bruce Smith, "The origins of agriculture in the Americas," Evolutionary Anthropology Evolutionary Anthropology 3:17484 (1995), discusses the revisionist view, based on accelerator ma.s.s spectrometry dating of very small plant samples, that the origins of agriculture in the Americas were much more recent than previously believed. 3:17484 (1995), discusses the revisionist view, based on accelerator ma.s.s spectrometry dating of very small plant samples, that the origins of agriculture in the Americas were much more recent than previously believed.

The following are accounts of animal domestication and livestock in specific parts of the world. For central and eastern Europe: S. Bokonyi, History of Domestic Mammals in Central and Eastern Europe History of Domestic Mammals in Central and Eastern Europe (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1974). For Africa: Andrew Smith, (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1974). For Africa: Andrew Smith, Pastoralism in Africa Pastoralism in Africa (London: Hurst, 1992). For the Andes: Elizabeth Wing, "Domestication of Andean mammals," pp. 24664 in F. Vuilleumier and M. Monasterio, eds., (London: Hurst, 1992). For the Andes: Elizabeth Wing, "Domestication of Andean mammals," pp. 24664 in F. Vuilleumier and M. Monasterio, eds., High Alt.i.tude Tropical Biogeography High Alt.i.tude Tropical Biogeography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986). (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986).

References on specific important crops include the following. Thomas Sodestrom et al., eds., Gra.s.s Systematics and Evolution Gra.s.s Systematics and Evolution (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Inst.i.tution Press, 1987), is a comprehensive multi-author account of gra.s.ses, the plant group that gave rise to our cereals, now the world's most important crops. Hugh Iltis, "From teosinte to maize: The catastrophic s.e.xual trans.m.u.tation," (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Inst.i.tution Press, 1987), is a comprehensive multi-author account of gra.s.ses, the plant group that gave rise to our cereals, now the world's most important crops. Hugh Iltis, "From teosinte to maize: The catastrophic s.e.xual trans.m.u.tation," Science Science 222:88694 (1983), gives an account of the drastic changes in reproductive biology involved in the evolution of corn from teosinte, its wild ancestor. Yan Wenming, "China's earliest rice agricultural remains," 222:88694 (1983), gives an account of the drastic changes in reproductive biology involved in the evolution of corn from teosinte, its wild ancestor. Yan Wenming, "China's earliest rice agricultural remains," Indo-Pacific Prehistory a.s.sociation Bulletin Indo-Pacific Prehistory a.s.sociation Bulletin 10:11826 (1991), discusses early rice domestication in South China. Two books by Charles Heiser, Jr., are popular accounts of particular crops: 10:11826 (1991), discusses early rice domestication in South China. Two books by Charles Heiser, Jr., are popular accounts of particular crops: The Sunflower The Sunflower (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976) and (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976) and The Gourd Book The Gourd Book (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1979). (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1979).

Many papers or books are devoted to accounts of particular domesticated animal species. R. T. Loftus et al., "Evidence for two independent domestications of cattle," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 91:275761 (1994), uses evidence from mitochondrial DNA to demonstrate that cattle were domesticated independently in western Eurasia and in the Indian subcontinent. For horses: Juliet Clutton-Brock, 91:275761 (1994), uses evidence from mitochondrial DNA to demonstrate that cattle were domesticated independently in western Eurasia and in the Indian subcontinent. For horses: Juliet Clutton-Brock, Horse Power Horse Power (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), Richard Meadow and Hans-Peter Uerpmann, eds., (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), Richard Meadow and Hans-Peter Uerpmann, eds., Equids in the Ancient World Equids in the Ancient World (Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1986), Matthew J. Kust, (Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1986), Matthew J. Kust, Man and Horse in History Man and Horse in History (Alexandria, Va.: Plutarch Press, 1983), and Robin Law, (Alexandria, Va.: Plutarch Press, 1983), and Robin Law, The Horse in West African History The Horse in West African History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980). For pigs: Colin Groves, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980). For pigs: Colin Groves, Ancestors for the Pigs: Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Ancestors for the Pigs: Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus (Technical Bulletin no. 3, Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University [1981]). For llamas: Kent Flannery, Joyce Marcus, and Robert Reynolds, Sus (Technical Bulletin no. 3, Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University [1981]). For llamas: Kent Flannery, Joyce Marcus, and Robert Reynolds, The Flocks of the Wamani The Flocks of the Wamani (San Diego: Academic Press, 1989). For dogs: Stanley Olsen, (San Diego: Academic Press, 1989). For dogs: Stanley Olsen, Origins of the Domestic Dog Origins of the Domestic Dog (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1985). John Varner and Jeannette Varner, (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1985). John Varner and Jeannette Varner, Dogs of the Conquest Dogs of the Conquest (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983), describes the Spaniards' use of dogs as military weapons to kill Indians during the Spanish conquests of the Americas. Clive Spinnage, (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983), describes the Spaniards' use of dogs as military weapons to kill Indians during the Spanish conquests of the Americas. Clive Spinnage, The Natural History of Antelopes The Natural History of Antelopes (New York: Facts on File, 1986), gives an account of the biology of antelopes, and hence a starting point for trying to understand why none of these seemingly obvious candidates for domestication was actually domesticated. Derek Goodwin, (New York: Facts on File, 1986), gives an account of the biology of antelopes, and hence a starting point for trying to understand why none of these seemingly obvious candidates for domestication was actually domesticated. Derek Goodwin, Domestic Birds Domestic Birds (London: Museum Press, 1965), summarizes the bird species that have been domesticated, and R. A. Donkin, (London: Museum Press, 1965), summarizes the bird species that have been domesticated, and R. A. Donkin, The Muscovy Duck The Muscovy Duck Cairina moschata domestica (Rotterdam: Balkema, 1989), discusses one of the sole two bird species domesticated in the New World. Cairina moschata domestica (Rotterdam: Balkema, 1989), discusses one of the sole two bird species domesticated in the New World.

Finally, the complexities of calibrating radiocarbon dates are discussed by G. W. Pearson, "How to cope with calibration," Antiquity Antiquity 61:98103 (1987), R. E. Taylor, eds., 61:98103 (1987), R. E. Taylor, eds., Radiocarbon after Four Decades: An Interdisciplinary Perspective Radiocarbon after Four Decades: An Interdisciplinary Perspective (New York: Springer, 1992), M. Stuiver et al., "Calibration," (New York: Springer, 1992), M. Stuiver et al., "Calibration," Radiocarbon Radiocarbon 35:1244 (1993), S. Bowman "Using radiocarbon: An update," 35:1244 (1993), S. Bowman "Using radiocarbon: An update," Antiquity Antiquity 68:83843 (1994), and R. E. Taylor, M. Stuiver, and C. Vance Haynes, Jr., "Calibration of the Late Pleistocene radiocarbon time scale: Clovis and Folsom age estimates," 68:83843 (1994), and R. E. Taylor, M. Stuiver, and C. Vance Haynes, Jr., "Calibration of the Late Pleistocene radiocarbon time scale: Clovis and Folsom age estimates," Antiquity Antiquity vol. 70 (1996). vol. 70 (1996).

Chapter 11 For a gripping account of the impact of disease on a human population, nothing can match Thucydides' account of the plague of Athens, in book 2 of his Peloponnesian War Peloponnesian War (available in many translations). (available in many translations).

Three cla.s.sic accounts of disease in history are Hans Zinsser, Rats, Lice, and History Rats, Lice, and History (Boston: Little, Brown, 1935), Geddes Smith, (Boston: Little, Brown, 1935), Geddes Smith, A Plague on Us A Plague on Us (New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1941), and William McNeill, (New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1941), and William McNeill, Plagues and Peoples Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1976). The last book, written by a distinguished historian rather than by a physician, has been especially influential in bringing historians to recognize the impacts of disease, as have been the two books by Alfred Crosby listed under the further readings for the Prologue. (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1976). The last book, written by a distinguished historian rather than by a physician, has been especially influential in bringing historians to recognize the impacts of disease, as have been the two books by Alfred Crosby listed under the further readings for the Prologue.

Friedrich Vogel and Arno Motulsky, Human Genetics Human Genetics, 2nd ed. (Berlin: Springer, 1986), the standard textbook on human genetics, is a convenient reference for natural selection of human populations by disease, and for the development of genetic resistance against specific diseases. Roy Anderson and Robert May, Infectious Diseases of Humans Infectious Diseases of Humans (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), is a clear mathematical treatment of disease dynamics, transmission, and epidemiology. MacFarlane Burnet, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), is a clear mathematical treatment of disease dynamics, transmission, and epidemiology. MacFarlane Burnet, Natural History of Infectious Disease Natural History of Infectious Disease (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953), is a cla.s.sic by a distinguished medical researcher, while Arno Karlen, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953), is a cla.s.sic by a distinguished medical researcher, while Arno Karlen, Man and Microbes Man and Microbes (New York: Putnam, 1995), is a recent popular account. (New York: Putnam, 1995), is a recent popular account.

Books and articles specifically concerned with the evolution of human infectious diseases include Aidan c.o.c.kburn, Infectious Diseases: Their Evolution and Eradication Infectious Diseases: Their Evolution and Eradication (Springfield, Ill.: Thomas, 1967); the same author's "Where did our infectious diseases come from?" pp. 10313 in (Springfield, Ill.: Thomas, 1967); the same author's "Where did our infectious diseases come from?" pp. 10313 in Health and Disease in Tribal Societies Health and Disease in Tribal Societies, CIBA Foundation Symposium, no. 49 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1977); George Williams and Randolph Nesse, "The dawn of Darwinian medicine," Quarterly Reviews of Biology Quarterly Reviews of Biology 66:162 (1991); and Paul Ewald, 66:162 (1991); and Paul Ewald, Evolution of Infectious Disease Evolution of Infectious Disease (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).

Francis Black, "Infectious diseases in primitive societies," Science Science 187:51518 (1975), discusses the differences between endemic and acute diseases in their impact on, and maintenance in, small isolated societies. Frank Fenner, "Myxoma virus and 187:51518 (1975), discusses the differences between endemic and acute diseases in their impact on, and maintenance in, small isolated societies. Frank Fenner, "Myxoma virus and Oryctolagus cuniculus: Oryctolagus cuniculus: Two colonizing species," pp. 485501 in H. G. Baker and G. L. Stebbins, eds., Two colonizing species," pp. 485501 in H. G. Baker and G. L. Stebbins, eds., Genetics of Colonizing Species Genetics of Colonizing Species (New York: Academic Press, 1965), describes the spread and evolution of Myxoma virus among Australian rabbits. Peter Panum, (New York: Academic Press, 1965), describes the spread and evolution of Myxoma virus among Australian rabbits. Peter Panum, Observations Made during the Epidemic of Measles on the Faroe Islands in the Year 1846 Observations Made during the Epidemic of Measles on the Faroe Islands in the Year 1846 (New York: American Public Health a.s.sociation, 1940), ill.u.s.trates how the arrival of an acute epidemic disease in an isolated nonresistant population quickly kills or immunizes the whole population. Francis Black, "Measles endemicity in insular populations: Critical community size and its evolutionary implication," (New York: American Public Health a.s.sociation, 1940), ill.u.s.trates how the arrival of an acute epidemic disease in an isolated nonresistant population quickly kills or immunizes the whole population. Francis Black, "Measles endemicity in insular populations: Critical community size and its evolutionary implication," Journal of Theoretical Biology Journal of Theoretical Biology 11:20711 (1966), uses such measles epidemics to calculate the minimum size of population required to maintain measles. Andrew Dobson, "The population biology of parasite-induced changes in host behavior," 11:20711 (1966), uses such measles epidemics to calculate the minimum size of population required to maintain measles. Andrew Dobson, "The population biology of parasite-induced changes in host behavior," Quarterly Reviews of Biology Quarterly Reviews of Biology 63:13965 (1988), discusses how parasites enhance their own transmission by changing the behavior of their host. Aidan c.o.c.kburn and Eve c.o.c.kburn, eds., 63:13965 (1988), discusses how parasites enhance their own transmission by changing the behavior of their host. Aidan c.o.c.kburn and Eve c.o.c.kburn, eds., Mummies, Diseases, and Ancient Cultures Mummies, Diseases, and Ancient Cultures (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), ill.u.s.trates what can be learned from mummies about past impacts of diseases. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), ill.u.s.trates what can be learned from mummies about past impacts of diseases.

As for accounts of disease impacts on previously unexposed populations, Henry Dobyns, Their Number Became Thinned Their Number Became Thinned (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1983), marshals evidence for the view that European-introduced diseases killed up to 95 percent of all Native Americans. Subsequent books or articles arguing that controversial thesis include John Verano and Douglas Ubelaker, eds., (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1983), marshals evidence for the view that European-introduced diseases killed up to 95 percent of all Native Americans. Subsequent books or articles arguing that controversial thesis include John Verano and Douglas Ubelaker, eds., Disease and Demography in the Americas Disease and Demography in the Americas (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Inst.i.tution Press, 1992); Ann Ramenofsky, (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Inst.i.tution Press, 1992); Ann Ramenofsky, Vectors of Death Vectors of Death (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987); Russell Thornton, (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987); Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival American Indian Holocaust and Survival (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987); and Dean Snow, "Microchronology and demographic evidence relating to the size of the pre-Columbian North American Indian population," (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987); and Dean Snow, "Microchronology and demographic evidence relating to the size of the pre-Columbian North American Indian population," Science Science 268:16014 (1995). Two accounts of depopulation caused by European-introduced diseases among Hawaii's Polynesian population are David Stannard, 268:16014 (1995). Two accounts of depopulation caused by European-introduced diseases among Hawaii's Polynesian population are David Stannard, Before the Horror: The Population of Hawaii on the Eve of Western Contact Before the Horror: The Population of Hawaii on the Eve of Western Contact (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989), and O. A. Bushnell, (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989), and O. A. Bushnell, The Gifts of Civilization: Germs and Genocide in Hawaii The Gifts of Civilization: Germs and Genocide in Hawaii (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993). The near-extermination of the Sadlermiut Eskimos by a dysentery epidemic in the winter of 19023 is described by Susan Rowley, "The Sadlermiut: Mysterious or misunderstood?" pp. 36184 in David Morrison and Jean-Luc Pilon, eds., (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993). The near-extermination of the Sadlermiut Eskimos by a dysentery epidemic in the winter of 19023 is described by Susan Rowley, "The Sadlermiut: Mysterious or misunderstood?" pp. 36184 in David Morrison and Jean-Luc Pilon, eds., Threads of Arctic Prehistory Threads of Arctic Prehistory (Hull: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1994). The reverse phenomenon, of European deaths due to diseases encountered overseas, is discussed by Philip Curtin, (Hull: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1994). The reverse phenomenon, of European deaths due to diseases encountered overseas, is discussed by Philip Curtin, Death by Migration: Europe's Encounter with the Tropical World in the 19th Century Death by Migration: Europe's Encounter with the Tropical World in the 19th Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

Among accounts of specific diseases, Stephen Morse, ed., Emerging Viruses Emerging Viruses (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), contains many valuable chapters on "new" viral diseases of humans; so does Mary Wilson et al., eds., (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), contains many valuable chapters on "new" viral diseases of humans; so does Mary Wilson et al., eds., Disease in Evolution Disease in Evolution, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 740 (New York, 1995). References for other diseases include the following. For bubonic plague: Colin McEvedy, "Bubonic plague," Scientific American Scientific American 258(2): 11823 (1988). For cholera: Norman Longmate, 258(2): 11823 (1988). For cholera: Norman Longmate, King Cholera King Cholera (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1966). For influenza: Edwin Kilbourne, (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1966). For influenza: Edwin Kilbourne, Influenza Influenza (New York: Plenum, 1987), and Robert Webster et al., "Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses," (New York: Plenum, 1987), and Robert Webster et al., "Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses," Microbiological Reviews Microbiological Reviews 56:15279 (1992). For Lyme disease: Alan Barbour and Durland Fish, "The biological and social phenomenon of Lyme disease," 56:15279 (1992). For Lyme disease: Alan Barbour and Durland Fish, "The biological and social phenomenon of Lyme disease," Science Science 260:161016 (1993), and Allan Steere, "Lyme disease: A growing threat to urban populations," 260:161016 (1993), and Allan Steere, "Lyme disease: A growing threat to urban populations," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91:237883 (1994). 91:237883 (1994).

For the evolutionary relationships of human malarial parasites: Thomas McCutchan et al., "Evolutionary relatedness of Plasmodium Plasmodium species as determined by the structure of DNA," species as determined by the structure of DNA," Science Science 225:80811 (1984), and A. P. Waters et al., " 225:80811 (1984), and A. P. Waters et al., "Plasmodium falc.i.p.arum appears to have arisen as a result of lateral transfer between avian and human hosts," appears to have arisen as a result of lateral transfer between avian and human hosts," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 88:314044 (1991). For the evolutionary relationships of measles virus: E. Norrby et al., "Is rinderpest virus the archevirus of the 88:314044 (1991). For the evolutionary relationships of measles virus: E. Norrby et al., "Is rinderpest virus the archevirus of the Morbillivirus Morbillivirus genus?" genus?" Intervirology Intervirology 23:22832 (1985), and Keith Murray et al., "A morbillivirus that caused fatal disease in horses and humans," 23:22832 (1985), and Keith Murray et al., "A morbillivirus that caused fatal disease in horses and humans," Science Science 268:9497 (1995). For pertussis, also known as whooping cough: R. Gross et al., "Genetics of pertussis toxin," 268:9497 (1995). For pertussis, also known as whooping cough: R. Gross et al., "Genetics of pertussis toxin," Molecular Microbiology Molecular Microbiology 3:11924 (1989). For smallpox: Donald Hopkins, 3:11924 (1989). For smallpox: Donald Hopkins, Princes and Peasants: Smallpox in History Princes and Peasants: Smallpox in History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983); F. Vogel and M. R. Chakravartti, "ABO blood groups and smallpox in a rural population of West Bengal and Bihar (India)," (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983); F. Vogel and M. R. Chakravartti, "ABO blood groups and smallpox in a rural population of West Bengal and Bihar (India)," Human Genetics Human Genetics 3:16680 (1966); and my article "A pox upon our genes," 3:16680 (1966); and my article "A pox upon our genes," Natural History Natural History 99(2): 2630 (1990). For monkeypox, a disease related to smallpox: Zden 99(2): 2630 (1990). For monkeypox, a disease related to smallpox: Zdenk Jeek and Frank Fenner, Human Monkeypox Human Monkeypox (Basel: Karger, 1988). For syphilis: Claude Quetel, (Basel: Karger, 1988). For syphilis: Claude Quetel, History of Syphilis History of Syphilis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990). For tuberculosis: Guy Youmans, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990). For tuberculosis: Guy Youmans, Tuberculosis Tuberculosis (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1979). For the claim that human tuberculosis was present in Native Americans before Columbus's arrival: in favor, Wilmar Salo et al., "Identification of (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1979). For the claim that human tuberculosis was present in Native Americans before Columbus's arrival: in favor, Wilmar Salo et al., "Identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA in a pre-Columbian Peruvian mummy," DNA in a pre-Columbian Peruvian mummy," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91:209194 (1994); opposed, William Stead et al., "When did 91:209194 (1994); opposed, William Stead et al., "When did Mycobacterium tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection first occur in the New World?" infection first occur in the New World?" American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine 151:126768 (1995). 151:126768 (1995).

Chapter 12 Books providing general accounts of writing and of particular writing systems include David Diringer, Writing Writing (London: Thames and Hudson, 1982), I. J. Gelb, (London: Thames and Hudson, 1982), I. J. Gelb, A Study of Writing A Study of Writing, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), Geoffrey Sampson, Writing Systems Writing Systems (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985), John DeFrancis, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985), John DeFrancis, Visible Speech Visible Speech (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989), Wayne Senner, ed., (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989), Wayne Senner, ed., The Origins of Writing The Origins of Writing (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991), and J. T. Hooker, ed., (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991), and J. T. Hooker, ed., Reading the Past Reading the Past (London: British Museum Press, 1990). A comprehensive account of significant writing systems, with plates depicting texts in each system, is David Diringer, (London: British Museum Press, 1990). A comprehensive account of significant writing systems, with plates depicting texts in each system, is David Diringer, The Alphabet The Alphabet, 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: Hutchinson, 1968). Jack Goody, The Domestication of the Savage Mind The Domestication of the Savage Mind (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), and Robert Logan, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), and Robert Logan, The Alphabet Effect The Alphabet Effect (New York: Morrow, 1986), discuss the impact of literacy in general and of the alphabet in particular. Uses of early writing are discussed by Nicholas Postgate et al., "The evidence for early writing: Utilitarian or ceremonial?" (New York: Morrow, 1986), discuss the impact of literacy in general and of the alphabet in particular. Uses of early writing are discussed by Nicholas Postgate et al., "The evidence for early writing: Utilitarian or ceremonial?" Antiquity Antiquity 69:45980 (1995). 69:45980 (1995).

Exciting accounts of decipherments of previously illegible scripts are given by Maurice Pope, The Story of Decipherment The Story of Decipherment (London: Thames and Hudson, 1975), Michael Coe, (London: Thames and Hudson, 1975), Michael Coe, Breaking the Maya Code Breaking the Maya Code (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992), John Chadwick, (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992), John Chadwick, The Decipherment of Linear B The Decipherment of Linear B (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), Yves Duhoux, Thomas Palaima, and John Bennet, eds., (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), Yves Duhoux, Thomas Palaima, and John Bennet, eds., Problems in Decipherment Problems in Decipherment (Louvain-la-Neuve: Peeters, 1989), and John Justeson and Terrence Kaufman, "A decipherment of epi-Olmec hieroglyphic writing," (Louvain-la-Neuve: Peeters, 1989), and John Justeson and Terrence Kaufman, "A decipherment of epi-Olmec hieroglyphic writing," Science Science 259:170311 (1993). 259:170311 (1993).

Denise Schmandt-Besserat's two-volume Before Writing Before Writing (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992) presents her controversial reconstruction of the origins of Sumerian writing from clay tokens over the course of nearly 5,000 years. Hans Nissen et al., eds., (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992) presents her controversial reconstruction of the origins of Sumerian writing from clay t