Garcia the Centenarian And His Times Part 20

"As Princess Isabelle, Miss Crichton (in whose person we recognised Miss Browne, the most promising pupil of the vocal art in the Royal Academy of Music) made her first appearance on any stage. She was successful to a degree which, since the _debut_ of Mr Sims Reeves in 1849, has had no parallel on the English stage."

Unhappily Miss Crichton's career, so brightly begun, was brought to a sudden close by her catching a malignant fever at Milan, resulting in the loss of her vocal powers. Had it not been for this, there is no doubt that she, too, would have been among that wonderful band of pupils who won fame in the operatic world for their maestro and themselves.

Miss Crichton, however, during her years of study seems to have caught the bacillus of old age from her master, for, upon ultimately regaining the beauty of her voice after many years of retirement, she continued to sing to her friends until within a few months of her death in her eightieth year. Among other eminent pupils who acquired from Garcia the bad habit of longevity, one may recall Stockhausen, who lived to pa.s.s his eightieth birthday; Charles Santley and Bessie Palmer, who are well on in the seventies; and Pauline Viardot, who is not so very far off her ninetieth year. Who will a.s.sert that old age is not catching?

1850 was a year interesting to musicians from the fact that Frederick Gye, the new manager of Covent Garden, produced Halevy's opera, "La Juive," while the great German ba.s.so, Herr Formes, made his English _debut_; but the year was memorable for England at large, from the fact that it saw the death of two of her best-known men--Robert Peel and Wordsworth.

With the following year--in which Turner pa.s.sed away--the subject of this memoir was included for the first time in the census of the United Kingdom. It affords a curious comparison with the numbers of the present day, when we note that the Return, taken a month before the opening of the Great Exhibition, gave the population as 27,637,761, the last figure of which shows the advent of the maestro with unmistakable clearness.

1852 again brought Garcia's name before the English public as it had in 1848. Just as in that year three rival opera companies in London had fought for the possession of his pupil Jenny Lind, so now the two managers--Gye and Lumley--strove for the possession of another of his pupils, Johanna Wagner, whose name was the only one rivalling that of the Swedish Nightingale in its magnetic hold upon the musical world.

The January of the following year, 1853, brought another pupil, Bessie Palmer, the contralto. She tells the story of her difficulties in becoming his pupil in her book of 'Musical Recollections':--

"By the advice of C. L. Gruneisen, the critic of 'The Morning Post,' I entered the Royal Academy of Music as a student. When I commenced studying in September 1851, Manuel Garcia's cla.s.s, which I had chosen to enter, was full, so I was placed in Mr Frank c.o.x's cla.s.s for six months.

Then Signor Crivelli heard me at one of the Academy weekly concerts, and suggested that I should become his pupil next term. Imagine my surprise when the old man positively a.s.serted that my voice was soprano, and made me learn many of Grisi's songs.

"After some months I found my voice becoming thin and scratchy and my throat in a constant state of irritation. At last, in January of 1853, I wrote to M. Cazalet, the superintendent, requesting that I should be placed in Signor Garcia's cla.s.s, as Signor Crivelli had quite altered the tone and quality of my voice, and had made a mistake. M. Cazalet answered that the committee refused to permit me to go into Signor Garcia's cla.s.s, and unless Signor Crivelli would kindly take me back as his pupil I could not return to the Academy. Of course I wrote at once and said I would _not_ rejoin Crivelli's cla.s.s, and certainly would not return at all.

"On leaving the Academy I went to Garcia's house and explained to him how my voice had been changed. He made me sing a few bars, and then told me I must rest entirely for some considerable time, not singing at all, and not talking too much, so as to give the throat, which was out of order, complete rest. After six months of quiet I went again to him, when he tried my voice and said I could now begin to practise. I therefore commenced lessons at once, and soon found it improving, thanks to the careful way in which he made me practise, bringing the voice back to its proper register, and giving me Italian contralto songs after many lessons."

With this episode we are brought to the year which medical men will consider the most important one in Manuel Garcia's life, as it was in 1854 that he perfected his great discovery.

[Ill.u.s.tration: MANUEL GARCIA.

(REPRODUCED FROM AN ORIGINAL SKETCH BY PAULINE VIARDOT SOON AFTER THE INVENTION OF THE LARYNGOSCOPE.)]

CHAPTER XIV.

THE LARYNGOSCOPE.

(1854-1857.)

It was in 1854 (the year which saw the ultimatum of England and France presented to St Petersburg, the prelude to the Crimean War) that the important invention was made--or, as the maestro with characteristic modesty described it, "the idea dawned on him"--of the laryngoscope.

As to its lasting value to the world at large, it will be sufficient to point out that since that year, according to reliable estimates, 3 per cent of the entire human race have been benefited by the invention.

With regard to the history of the discovery, an account of the earlier attempts which had been made has been set down in the number of the 'British Medical Journal' published at the time of the Garcia Centenary.

Before proceeding further, it may be well to warn the reader that the next few pages are bound to deal with a certain amount of technical detail which it is impossible to avoid in relating this portion of the maestro's career.

Although the dentist's mirror was in use among the ancient Romans, the first trace of an attempt to examine the throat by means of reflected light is found about the middle of the eighteenth century.

In 1734 Levret, whose name is still held in honour among obstetricians, described a speculum, consisting of a plate of polished metal, which "reflected the luminous rays in the direction of the tumour," and received the image of the tumour on its reflecting surface. Levret seems to have used the mirror, not as a means of diagnosis, but as a guide in the application of ligatures to tumours in the throat. At any rate, his invention bore no fruit.

Half a century later Bozzini, of Frankfort-on-the-Main, devoted much attention to devising means of illuminating the main ca.n.a.ls of the human body. In 1807 he published a description of an apparatus by which the throat and the posterior nares could be examined by reflected light. The official heads of the profession laughed away his invention, which, though c.u.mbrous, deserved a better fate.

In 1825 Cagniard de Latour introduced a little mirror into the back of the throat, hoping with the aid of the sun's rays and a second mirror to be able to see the epiglottis, and even the glottis, but failed. In 1827 another unsuccessful attempt was made by Senn of Geneva; and two years later Benjamin Guy Babington exhibited at the Hunterian Society of London an instrument very like the laryngoscope now in use: he employed it in many cases, but for some reason seems to have left no record of them.

In 1832 Bennati of Paris stated that he could see the vocal cords by means of a double-tubed speculum, invented by a patient suffering from laryngeal phthisis. Trouseau, however, proved to his own satisfaction that the epiglottis must always make it impossible to see the inside of the larynx.

In 1838 Baumes of Lyons showed a mirror with which he said the larynx could be examined.

In 1844 Warden of Edinburgh reported two cases in which he said he had been able to make "satisfactory ocular inspection of diseases affecting the glottis," by using two prisms of flint gla.s.s. In the same year Avery of London devised a laryngoscope in which a laryngeal mirror was combined with a lamp and reflector: the apparatus embodied the essential features of the modern laryngoscope, but its clumsiness made its practical application difficult, and in many cases impossible.

Up to 1850, then, the different attempts had met with failure in varying degrees. When Garcia attacked the problem he was quite ignorant of the fact that others had been at work, and his reason for wishing to overcome the difficulty and catch a glimpse of the glottis was perfectly different from theirs. His was one connected entirely with his work as a teacher of singing. Ever since he had given attention to the scientific aspects of voice-emission, he had longed to see a healthy glottis in the very act of singing. The idea of employing mirrors for the purpose of studying the interior of the larynx came to him in 1854. The following is the story of the discovery as he related it one day:--

"During all the years of study and investigation of the problems of the voice-emission," he said, "one wish was ever uppermost in my mind--'if only I could see the glottis!'"

One day in the September of 1854, when on a visit to Paris, he was standing in the Palais Royal. Suddenly there came to him an idea. "Why should I not _try_ to see it?" How must this be done? Why, obviously by some means of reflection. Then, like a flash, he seemed to see the two mirrors of the laryngoscope in their respective positions as though actually before his eyes. He went straight to Charriere, the surgical instrument maker, asked whether they happened to possess a small mirror with a long handle, and was at once supplied with a dentist's mirror, which had been one of the failures of the London Exhibition of 1851. He bought it for six francs.

Returning home, he placed against the uvula this little piece of gla.s.s, which he had heated with warm water and carefully dried. Then with a hand-mirror he flashed on to its surface a ray of sunlight. By good fortune he hit upon the proper angle at the very first attempt. There before his eyes appeared the glottis, wide open and so fully exposed that he could see a portion of the trachea. So dumfounded was he that he sat down aghast for several minutes. On recovering from his amazement he gazed intently for some time at the changes which were presented to his vision while the various tones were being emitted. From what he witnessed it was easy to conclude that his theory, attributing to the glottis alone the power of engendering sound, was confirmed, and thence it followed that the different positions taken by the larynx in the front of the throat had no action whatever in the formation of the sound. At last he tore himself away, and wrote a description of what he had seen.

Six months later, on March 22, 1855, his paper, "Physiological Observations on the Human Voice," was submitted to the Royal Society of London. In it was set down the scientific thesis of his discovery in language which would have done credit to expert anatomists and physiologists.

On May 24 this was read before the Society by Professor Sharpey at a meeting held under the presidency of Lord Wrottesley, and was duly published in the 'Proceedings of the Royal Society,' vol. vii.

Investigation shows that primarily it is an account of the oral cavity and of the physiology of the voice, exemplified by the mechanical contrivance of the author's own thoughtful invention, actually used in an autoscopic manner with the idea of elucidating the action of the larynx during vocal effort.

As far as Garcia was concerned, the laryngoscope ceased to be of any special use as soon as his first investigations were concluded. By his examination of the glottis he had had the satisfaction of proving that all his theories with regard to the emission of the voice were absolutely correct. Beyond that, he did not see that anything further was to be gained beyond satisfying the curiosity of those who might be interested to see for themselves the forms and changes which the inside of the larynx a.s.sumed during singing and speaking. The method of making scientific use of the voice is due to his discovery and ocular verification of the action of the vocal cords and of the glottis in the emission of sound.

As to the subsequent use of the laryngoscope in another sphere of investigation, and the far-reaching results which are due to it, it was nearly two years before the possibility of making practical use was seen. The medical profession was slow to realise what an invaluable instrument of observation the musician had provided, and at first it was treated by superior persons as nothing more than a physiological toy; in fact, as so often happens when a discovery is made by some one not belonging to the craft, Garcia's communication was originally received by the doctors with indifference, if not with incredulity.

It might have been expected that the uses to which the instrument could be put for diseases of the throat would forthwith have been perceived, and its value as a means of diagnosis appreciated. Yet, but for an accident, the paper might have lain buried in the dusty tomb of the 'Proceedings' of the Royal Society.

It is generally said that Turck of Vienna, coming by chance across it two years after the date of its presentation, was inspired to apply the invention to the examination of the upper air-pa.s.sages. "This," says the 'British Medical Journal,' "is not accurate. Turck had been working independently on much the same lines as Garcia, and had even devised a laryngoscope. He showed the instrument to a friend, who at once informed him that the invention was not new, and directed his attention to the paper in question."

Turck continued his experiments for a time; and it was in this year, 1857, that the instrument was actually used for the first time for diagnostic purposes. He seems, however, to have given up his experiments later, owing to the want of sunlight in the winter.

Soon after this, Professor J. N. Czermak of Buda-Pesth, another great physiologist, visited Vienna, and was shown the instrument, in which he was keenly interested. With it he made the observations which he published. This fact gave rise to one of those bitter controversies as to priority, of which the history of science offers so many examples.

The famous dispute had the immediate effect of directing the attention of the whole world to the laryngoscope. As to the rights of the matter, it would appear that while there is no doubt that Czermak owed his knowledge of the method to Turck and indirectly to Garcia, he made the important modification of subst.i.tuting artificial illumination for the uncertain light of the sun.

One thing is certain, and that is that to Czermak belongs the credit of making known to the world the laryngoscope, and to some extent the possibilities lying hidden in the little mirror. He visited the princ.i.p.al medical centres of Europe, and, luckily being gifted with a capacious and exceptionally tolerant throat, he was able to give convincing demonstrations of the value of the discovery, and its scientific and practical possibilities. If Garcia was the founder, Czermak was the apostle, of laryngology.

As to the demonstrations with the instrument, many amusing incidents have taken place. Two in particular I remember hearing Garcia relate.

His pupil Charles Battaille, to whom reference has been already made in an earlier chapter, was most enthusiastic over it, and, having been a medical student at one time, considered himself well qualified to demonstrate its virtues. Hearing that the Turkish Amba.s.sador in Paris was going to give a dinner to the most prominent French inventors of that time, he obtained permission to show off the uses of the new exhibit during the evening. After pointing out that it would revolutionise the scientific study of the throat, he proceeded to force the instrument down the gullet of an unfortunate Court official who had barely finished dinner. The result was disastrous.

The other story was a comical experience of a well-known specialist.

Like all very sensitive areas of the human body, the organ of the voice is sometimes invaded by special symptoms, notably in hysterical patients.

When the laryngoscope became a speciality, a young lady who for two whole years had lost all power of articulation was brought up to London by her mother for advice and treatment. The experienced laryngologist to whom she was introduced placed her in proper position before his lamp, while the parent poured out the prolonged tale of affliction. Without taking any apparent notice of the latter, he placed the mirror in the girl's throat with the usual request, delivered in a cool and commanding tone, "Say 'aw,' please"; when the young lady snappishly drew back her head with, "How can I with that thing in my throat?"--followed by, "Oh, dear, I've spoken!" The specialist turned at once to the anxious parent, and told her she might take her daughter home cured,--as she proved to be.