Darwin, and After Darwin Volume I Part 12

We may now proceed to consider certain misconceptions of the Darwinian theory which are largely, not to say generally, prevalent among supporters of the theory. These misconceptions, therefore, differ from those which fall to be considered in the next chapter, i. e.

misconceptions which const.i.tute grounds of objection to the theory.

Of all the errors connected with the theory of natural selection, perhaps the one most frequently met with--especially among supporters of the theory--is that of employing the theory to explain all cases of phyletic modification (or inherited change of type) indiscriminately, without waiting to consider whether in particular cases its application is so much as logically possible. The term "natural selection" thus becomes a magic word, or Sesame, at the utterance of which every closed door is supposed to be immediately opened. Be it observed, I am not here alluding to that merely blind faith in natural selection, which of late years has begun dogmatically to force this principle as the sole cause of organic evolution in every case where it is _logically possible_ that the principle can have come into play. Such a blind faith, indeed, I hold to be highly inimical, not only to the progress of biological science, but even to the true interests of the natural selection theory itself. As to this I shall have a good deal to say in the next volume.

Here, however, the point is, that the theory in question is often invoked in cases where it is not even logically possible that it can apply, and therefore in cases where its application betokens, not merely an error of judgment or extravagance of dogmatism, but a fallacy of reasoning in the nature of a logical contradiction. Almost any number of examples might be given; but one will suffice to ill.u.s.trate what is meant. And I choose it from the writings of one of the authors of the selection theory itself, in order to show how easy it is to be cheated by this mere juggling with a phrase--for of course I do not doubt that a moment's thought would have shown the writer the untenability of his statement.

In his most recent work Mr. Wallace advances an interesting hypothesis to the effect that differences of colour between allied species, which are apparently too slight to serve any other purpose, may act as "recognition marks," whereby the opposite s.e.xes are enabled at once to distinguish between members of their own and of closely resembling species. Of course this hypothesis can only apply to the higher animals; but the point here is that, supposing it to hold for them, Mr. Wallace proceeds to argue thus:--Recognition marks "have in all probability been acquired in the process of differentiation for the purpose of checking the intercrossing of allied forms," because "one of the first needs of a new species would be to keep separate from its nearest allies, and this could be more readily done by some easily seen external mark[32]."

Now, it is clearly not so much as logically possible that these recognition-marks (supposing them to be such) can have been acquired by natural selection, "for the purpose of checking intercrossing of allied forms." For the theory of natural selection, from its own essential nature as a theory, is logically exclusive of the supposition that survival of the fittest ever provides changes in antic.i.p.ation of future uses. Or, otherwise stated, it involves a contradiction of the theory itself to say that the colour-changes in question were originated by natural selection, in order to meet "one of the _first_ needs of a _new_ species," or for the purpose of _subsequently_ preventing intercrossing with allied forms. If it had been said that these colour-differentiations were originated by some cause other than natural selection (or, if by natural selection, still with regard to some _previous_, instead of _prophetic_, "purpose"), and, when so "acquired,"

_then_ began to serve the "purpose" a.s.signed, the argument would not have involved the fallacy which we are now considering. But, as it stands, the argument reverts to the teleology of pre-Darwinian days--or the hypothesis of a "purpose" in the literal sense which sees the end from the beginning, instead of a "purpose" in the metaphorical sense of an adaptation that is evolved by the very modifications which subserve it[33].

[32] _Darwinism_, pp. 218 and 227.

[33] Since the above was written Prof. Lloyd Morgan has published a closely similar notice of the pa.s.sage in question. "This language,"

he says, "seems to savour of teleology (that pitfall of the evolutionist). The cart is put before the horse. The recognition-marks were, I believe, not produced to prevent intercrossing, but intercrossing has been prevented because of preferential mating between individuals possessing special recognition-marks. To miss this point is to miss an important segregation-factor."--(_Animal Life and Intelligence_, p. 103.) Again, on pp. 184-9, he furnishes an excellent discussion on the whole subject of the fallacy alluded to in the text, and gives ill.u.s.trative quotations from other prominent Darwinians. I should like to add that Darwin himself has nowhere fallen into this, or any of the other fallacies, which are mentioned in the text.

Another very prevalent, and more deliberate, fallacy connected with the theory of natural selection is, _that it follows deductively from the theory itself_ that the principle of natural selection must be the sole means of modification in all cases where modification is of an _adaptive_ kind,--with the consequence that no other principle can ever have been concerned in the production of structures or instincts which are of any use to their possessors. Whether or not natural selection actually has been the sole means of adaptive modification in the race, as distinguished from the individual, is a question of biological fact[34]; but it involves a grave error of reasoning to suppose that this question can be answered deductively from the theory of natural selection itself, as I shall show at some length in the next volume.

[34] Of course adaptive modifications produced in the individual lifetime, and not _inherited_, do not concern the question at all.

In this and the following paragraphs, therefore, "adaptations,"

"adaptive modifications," &c., refer exclusively to such as are hereditary, i. e. phyletic.

A still more extravagant, and a still more unaccountable fallacy is the one which represents it as following deductively from the theory of natural selection itself, that all _hereditary_ characters are "necessarily" due to natural selection. In other words, not only all adaptive, but likewise all non-adaptive hereditary characters, it is said, _must_ be due to natural selection. For non-adaptive characters are taken to be due to "correlation of growth," in connexion with some of the adaptive ones--natural selection being thus the _indirect_ means of producing the former _wherever_ they may occur, on account of its being the _direct_ and the _only_ means of producing the latter. Thus it is deduced from the theory of natural selection itself,--1st, that the principle of natural selection is the only possible cause of adaptive modification: 2nd, that non-adaptive modifications can only occur in the race as correlated appendages to the adaptive: 3rd, that, consequently, natural selection is the only possible cause of modification, whether adaptive or non-adaptive. Here again, therefore, we must observe that none of these sweeping generalizations can possibly be justified by deductive reasoning from the theory of natural selection itself. Any attempt at such deductive reasoning must necessarily end in circular reasoning, as I shall likewise show in the second volume, where this whole "question of utility" will be thoroughly dealt with.

Once more, there is an important oversight very generally committed by the followers of Darwin. For even those who avoid the fallacies above mentioned often fail to perceive, that natural selection can only begin to operate if the _degree_ of adaptation is already given as sufficiently high to count for something in the struggle for _existence_. Any adaptations which fall below this level of importance cannot possibly have been produced by survival of the fittest. Yet the followers of Darwin habitually speak of adaptative characters, which _in their own opinion_ are subservient merely to comfort or convenience, as having been produced by such means. Clearly this is illogical; for it belongs to the essence of Darwin's theory to suppose, that natural selection can have no jurisdiction beyond the line where structures or instincts already present a sufficient degree of adaptational value to increase, in some measure, the expectation of life on the part of their possessors. We cannot speak of adaptations as due to natural selection, without thereby affirming that they present what I have elsewhere termed a "selection value."

Lastly, as a mere matter of logical definition, it is well-nigh self-evident that the theory of natural selection is a theory of the origin, and c.u.mulative development, of _adaptations_, whether these be distinctive of species, or of genera, orders, families, cla.s.ses, and sub-kingdoms. It is only when the adaptations happen to be distinctive of the first (or lowest) of these taxonomic divisions, that the theory which accounts for _these_ adaptations accounts also for the forms which present them,--i. e. becomes _also_ a theory of the origin of species.

This, however, is clearly but an accident of particular cases; and, therefore, even in them the theory is _primarily_ a theory of adaptations, while it is but secondarily a theory of the species which present them. Or, otherwise stated, the theory is no more a theory of the origin of species than it is of the origin of genera, families, and the rest; while, on the other hand, it is _everywhere_ a theory of the adaptive modifications whereby each of these taxonomic divisions has been differentiated as such. Yet, sufficiently obvious as the accuracy of this definition must appear to any one who dispa.s.sionately considers it, several naturalists of high standing have denounced it in violent terms. I shall therefore have to recur to the subject at somewhat greater length hereafter. At present it is enough merely to mention the matter, as furnishing another and a curious ill.u.s.tration of the not infrequent weakness of logical perception on the part of minds well gifted with the faculty of observation. It may be added, however, that the definition in question is in no way hostile to the one which is virtually given by Darwin in the t.i.tle of his great work. _The Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection_ is beyond doubt the best t.i.tle that could have been given, because at the time when the work was published the _fact_, no less than the _method_, of organic evolution had to be established; and hence the most important thing to be done at that time was to prove the trans.m.u.tation of species. But now that this has been done to the satisfaction of naturalists in general, it is as I have said, curious to find some of them denouncing a wider definition of the principle of natural selection, merely because the narrower (or included) definition is invested with the charm of verbal a.s.sociations[35].

[35] The question as to whether natural selection has been the only principle concerned in the origination of species, is quite distinct from that as to the accuracy of the above definition.

So much for fallacies and misconceptions touching Darwin's theory, which are but too frequently met with in the writings of its supporters. We must now pa.s.s on to mention some of the still greater fallacies and misconceptions which are prevalent in the writings of its opponents.

And, in order to do this thoroughly, I shall begin by devoting the remainder of the present chapter to a consideration of the antecedent standing of the two theories of natural selection and supernatural design. This having been done, in the succeeding chapters I shall deal with the evidences for, and the objections against, the former theory.

Beginning, then, with the antecedent standing of these alternative theories, the first thing to be noticed is, that they are both concerned with the same subject-matter, which it is their common object to explain. Moreover, this subject-matter is clearly and sharply divisible into two great cla.s.ses of facts in organic nature--namely, those of Adaptation and those of Beauty. Darwin's theory of descent explains the former by his doctrine of natural selection, and the latter by his doctrine of s.e.xual selection. In the first instance, therefore, I shall have to deal only with the facts of adaptation, leaving for subsequent consideration the facts of beauty.

Innumerable cases of the adaptation of organisms to their surroundings being the facts which now stand before us to be explained either by natural selection or by supernatural intention, we may first consider a statement which is frequently met with--namely, that even if all such cases of adaptation were proved to be fully explicable by the theory of descent, this would const.i.tute no disproof of the theory of design: all the cases of adaptation, it is argued, might still be due to design, even though they admit of being hypothetically accounted for by the theory of descent. I have heard an eminent Professor tell his cla.s.s that the many instances of mechanical adaptation discovered and described by Darwin as occurring in orchids, seemed to him to furnish better proof of supernatural contrivance than of natural causes; and another eminent Professor has informed me that, although he had read the _Origin of Species_ with care, he could see in it no evidence of natural selection which might not equally well have been adduced in favour of intelligent design. But here we meet with a radical misconception of the whole logical att.i.tude of science. For, be it observed, this exception _in limine_ to the evidence which we are about to consider does not question that natural selection _may_ be able to do all that Darwin ascribes to it. The objection is urged against his interpretation of the facts merely on the ground that these facts might _equally well_ be ascribed to intelligent design. And so undoubtedly they might, if we were all simple enough to adopt a supernatural explanation whenever a natural one is found sufficient to account for the facts. Once admit the irrational principle that we may a.s.sume the operation of higher causes where the operation of lower ones is sufficient to explain the observed phenomena, and all our science and all our philosophy are scattered to the winds.

For the law of logic which Sir William Hamilton called the law of parsimony--or the law which forbids us to a.s.sume the operation of higher causes when lower ones are found sufficient to explain the observed effects--this law const.i.tutes the only barrier between science and superst.i.tion. It is always possible to give a hypothetical explanation of any phenomenon whatsoever, by referring it immediately to the intelligence of some supernatural agent; so that the only difference between the logic of science and the logic of superst.i.tion consists in science recognising a validity in the law of parsimony which superst.i.tion disregards. Therefore one can have no hesitation in saying that this way of looking at the evidence in favour of natural selection is not a scientific or a reasonable way of looking at it, but a purely superst.i.tious way. Let us take, as an ill.u.s.tration, a perfectly parallel case. When Kepler was unable to explain by any known causes the paths described by the planets, he resorted to a supernatural explanation, and supposed that every planet was guided in its movements by some presiding angel. But when Newton supplied a beautifully simple physical explanation, all persons with a scientific habit of mind at once abandoned the metaphysical one. Now, to be consistent, the above-mentioned Professors, and all who think with them, ought still to adhere to Kepler's hypothesis in preference to Newton's explanation; for, excepting the law of parsimony, there is certainly no other logical objection to the statement, that the movements of the planets afford as good evidence of the influence of guiding angels as they do of the influence of gravitation.

So much, then, for the illogical position that, granting the evidence in favour of natural descent and supernatural design to be equal and parallel, we should hesitate in our choice between the two theories.

But, of course, if the evidence is supposed _not_ to be equal and parallel--i. e. if it is supposed that the theory of natural selection is not so good a theory whereby to explain the facts of adaptation as is that of supernatural design,--then the objection is no longer the one which we are considering. It is quite another objection, and one which is not _prima facie_ absurd. Therefore let us state clearly the distinct question which thus arises.

Innumerable cases of adaptation of organisms to their environments are the observed facts for which an explanation is required. To supply this explanation, two, and only two, hypotheses are in the field. Of these two hypotheses one is intelligent design manifested directly in special creation; the other is natural causation operating through countless ages of the past. Now, the adaptations in question involve an innumerable mult.i.tude of special mechanisms, in most cases even within the limits of any one given species; but when we consider the sum of all these mechanisms presented by organic nature as a whole, the mind must indeed be dull which does not feel astounded. For, be it further observed, these mechanical contrivances[36] are, for the most part, no merely simple arrangements, which might reasonably be supposed due, like the phenomena of crystallization, to comparatively simple physical causes. On the contrary, they everywhere and habitually exhibit so deep-laid, so intricate, and often so remote an adaptation of means to ends, that no machinery of human contrivance can properly be said to equal their perfection from a mechanical point of view. Therefore, without question, the hypothesis which first of all they suggest--or suggest most readily--is the hypothesis of design. And this hypothesis becomes virtually the only hypothesis possible, if it be a.s.sumed--as it generally was a.s.sumed by natural theologians of the past,--that all species of plants and animals were introduced into the world _suddenly_.

For it is quite inconceivable that any known cause, other than intelligent design, could be competent to turn out instantaneously any one of these intricate pieces of machinery, already adapted to the performance of its special function. But, on the other hand, if there is any evidence to show that one species becomes slowly transformed into another--or that one set of adaptations becomes slowly changed into another set as changing circ.u.mstances require,--then it becomes quite possible to imagine that a strictly natural causation may have had something to do with the matter. And this suggestion becomes greatly more probable when we discover, from geological evidence and embryological research, that in the history both of races and of individuals the various mechanisms in question have themselves had a history--beginning in the forms of most uniformity and simplicity, gradually advancing to forms more varied and complex, nowhere exhibiting any interruptions in their upward progress, until the world of organic machinery as we now have it is seen to have been but the last phase of a long and gradual growth, the ultimate roots of which are to be found in the soil of undifferentiated protoplasm.

[36] It is often objected to Darwin's terminology, that it embraces such words as "contrivance," "purpose," &c., which are strictly applicable only to the processes or the products of thought. But when it is understood that they are used in a neutral or metaphorical sense, I cannot see that any harm arises from their use.

Lastly, when there is supplied to us the suggestion of natural selection as a cause presumably adequate to account for this continuous growth in the number, the intricacy, and the perfection of such mechanisms, it is only the most unphilosophical mind that can refuse to pause as between the older hypothesis of design and the newer hypothesis of descent.

Thus it is clear that the _a priori_ standing of the rival hypotheses of naturalism and supernaturalism in the case of all these pieces of organic machinery, is profoundly affected by the question whether they came into existence suddenly, or whether they did so gradually. For, if they all came into existence suddenly, the fact would const.i.tute well-nigh positive proof in favour of supernaturalism, or creation by design; whereas, if they all came into existence gradually, this fact would in itself const.i.tute presumptive evidence in favour of naturalism, or of development by natural causes. And, as shown in the previous chapters, the proof that all species of plants and animals came into existence gradually--or the proof of evolution as a fact--is simply overwhelming.

From a still more general point of view I may state the case in another way, by borrowing and somewhat expanding an ill.u.s.tration which, I believe, was first used by Professor Huxley. If, when the tide is out, we see lying upon the sh.o.r.e a long line of detached sea-weed, marking the level which is reached by full tide, we should be free to conclude that the separation of the sea-weed from the sand and the stones was due to the intelligent work of some one who intended to collect the sea-weed for manure, or for any other purpose. But, on the other hand, we might explain the fact by a purely physical cause--namely, the separation by the sea-waves of the sea-weed from the sand and stones, in virtue of its lower specific gravity. Now, thus far the fact would be explained equally well by either hypothesis; and this fact would be the fact of _selection_. But whether we yielded our a.s.sent to the one explanation or to the other would depend upon a due consideration of all collateral circ.u.mstances. The sea-weed might not be of a kind that is of any use to man; there might be too great a quant.i.ty of it to admit of our supposing that it had been collected by man; the fact that it was all deposited on the high-water-mark would in itself be highly suggestive of the agency of the sea; and so forth. Thus, in such a case any reasonable observer would decide in favour of the physical explanation, or against the teleological one.

Now the question whether organic evolution has been caused by physical agencies or by intelligent design is in precisely the same predicament.

There can be no logical doubt that, theoretically at all events, the physical agencies which the present chapter is concerned with, and which are conveniently summed up in the term natural selection, are as competent to produce these so-called mechanical contrivances, and the other cases of adaptation which are to be met with in organic nature, as intelligent design could be. Hence, our choice as between these two hypotheses must be governed by a study of all collateral circ.u.mstances; that is to say, by a study of the evidences in favour of the physical explanation. To this study, therefore, we shall now address ourselves, in the course of the following chapters.

CHAPTER VIII.

EVIDENCES OF THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION.

I will now proceed to state the main arguments in favour of the theory of natural selection, and then, in the following chapter, the main objections which have been urged against it.

In my opinion, the main arguments in favour of the theory are three in number.

First, it is a matter of observation that the struggle for existence in nature does lead to the extermination of forms less fitted for the struggle, and thus makes room for forms more fitted. This general fact may be best observed in cases where an exotic species proves itself better fitted to inhabit a new country than is some endemic species which it exterminates. In Great Britain, for example, the so-called common rat is a comparatively recent importation from Norway, and it has so completely supplanted the original British rat, that it is now extremely difficult to procure a single specimen of the latter: the native black rat has been all but exterminated by the foreign brown rat.

The same thing is constantly found in the case of imported species of plants. I have seen the river at Cambridge so choked with the inordinate propagation of a species of water-weed which had been introduced from America, that considerable expense had to be incurred in order to clear the river for traffic. In New Zealand the same thing has happened with the European water-cress, and in Australia with the common rabbit. So it is doubtless true, as one of the natives is said to have philosophically remarked, "the white man's rat has driven away our rat, the European fly drives away our fly, his clover kills our gra.s.s, and so will the Maoris disappear before the white man himself." Innumerable other cases to the same effect might be quoted; and they all go to establish the fact that forms less fitted to survive succ.u.mb in their compet.i.tion with forms better fitted.

Secondly, there is a general consideration of the largest possible significance in the present connexion--namely, that among all the millions of structures and instincts which are so invariably, and for the most part so wonderfully, adapted to the needs of the species presenting them, we cannot find a single instance, either in the vegetable or animal kingdom, of a structure or an instinct which is developed for the exclusive benefit of another species. Now this great and general fact is to my mind a fact of the most enormous, not to say overwhelming, significance. The theory of natural selection has now been before the world for more than thirty years, and during that time it had stood a fire of criticism such as was never encountered by any scientific theory before. From the first Darwin invited this criticism to adduce any single instance, either in the vegetable or animal kingdom, of a structure or an instinct which should unquestionably be proved to be of exclusive use to any species other than the one presenting it. He even went so far as to say that if any one such instance could be shown he would surrender his whole theory on the strength of it--so a.s.sured had he become, by his own prolonged researches, that natural selection was the true agent in the production of adaptive structures, and, as such, could never have permitted such a structure to occur in one species for the benefit of another. Now, as this invitation has been before the world for so many years, and has not yet been answered by any naturalist, we may by this time be pretty confident that it never will be answered. How tremendous, then, is the significance of this fact in its testimony to Darwin's theory! The number of animal and vegetable species, both living and extinct, is to be reckoned by millions, and every one of these species presents on an average hundreds of adaptive structures,--at least one of which in many, possibly in most, if not actually in all cases, is peculiar to the species that presents it. In other words, there are millions of adaptive structures (not to speak of instincts) which are peculiar to the species presenting them, and also many more which are the common property of allied species: yet, notwithstanding this inconceivable profusion of adaptive structures in organic nature, there is no single instance that has been pointed out of the occurrence of such a structure save for the benefit of the species that presents it. Therefore, I say that this immensely large and general fact speaks with literally immeasurable force in favour of natural selection, as at all events one of the main causes of organic evolution. For the fact is precisely what we should expect if this theory is true, while upon no other theory can its universality and invariability be rendered intelligible. On the beneficent design theory, for instance, it is inexplicable that no species should ever be found to present a structure or an instinct having primary reference to the welfare of another species, when, _ex hypothesi_, such an endless amount of thought has been displayed in the creation of structures and instincts having primary reference to the species which present them. For how magnificent a display of divine beneficence would organic nature have afforded, if all--or even some--species had been so inter-related as to have ministered to each others wants. Organic species might then have been likened to a countless mult.i.tude of voices, all singing in one great harmonious psalm. But, as it is, we see absolutely no vestige of such co-ordination: every species is for itself, and for itself alone--an outcome of the always and everywhere fiercely raging struggle for life.

In order that the force of this argument may not be misapprehended, it is necessary to bear in mind that it is in no way affected by cases where a structure or an instinct is of primary benefit to its possessor, and then becomes of secondary benefit to some other species on account of the latter being able in some way or another to utilise its action.

Of course organic nature is full of cases of this kind; but they only go to show the readiness which all species display to utilise for themselves everything that can be turned to good account in their own environments, and so, among other things, the structures and instincts of other animals. For instance, it would be no answer to Darwin's challenge if any one were to point to a hermit-crab inhabiting the cast-off sh.e.l.l of a mollusk; because the sh.e.l.l was primarily of use to the mollusk itself, and, so far as the mollusk is concerned, the fact of its sh.e.l.l being afterwards of a secondary use to the crab is quite immaterial. What Darwin's challenge requires is, that some structure or instinct should be shown which is not merely of such secondary or accidental benefit to another species, but clearly adapted to the needs of that other species in the first instance--such, for example, as would be the case if the tail of a rattle-snake were of no use to its possessor, while serving to warn other animals of the proximity of a dangerous creature; or, in the case of instincts, if it were true that a pilot-fish accompanies a shark for the purpose of helping the shark to discover food. Both these instances have been alleged; but both have been shown untenable. And so it has proved of all the other cases which thus far have been put forward.

Perhaps the most remarkable of all the allegations which ever have been put forward in this connexion are those that were current with regard to instincts before the publication of Darwin's work. These allegations are the most remarkable, because they serve to show, in a degree which I do not believe could be shown anywhere else, the warping power of preconceived ideas. A short time ago I happened to come across the 8th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, and turned up the article on "Instinct" there, in order to see what amount of change had been wrought with regard to our views on this subject by the work of Darwin--the 8th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ having been published shortly before _The Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection_. I cannot wait to give any lengthy quotations from this representative exponent of scientific opinion upon the subject at that time; but its general drift may be appreciated if I transcribe merely the short concluding paragraph, wherein he sums up his general results. Here he says:--

It thus only remains for us to regard instinct as a mental faculty, _sui generis_, the gift of G.o.d to the lower animals, that man in his own person, and by them, might be relieved from the meanest drudgery of nature.

Now, here we have the most extraordinary ill.u.s.tration that is imaginable of the obscuring influence of a preconceived idea. Because he started with the belief that instincts _must_ have been implanted in animals for the benefit of man, this writer, even when writing a purely scientific essay, was completely blinded to the largest, the most obvious, and the most important of the facts which the phenomena of instinct display.

For, as a matter of fact, among all the many thousands of instincts which are known to occur in animals, there is no single one that can be pointed to as having any special reference to man; while, on the other hand, it is equally impossible to point to one which does not refer to the welfare of the animal presenting it. Indeed, when the point is suggested, it seems to me surprising how few in number are the instincts of animals which have proved to be so much as of secondary or accidental benefit to man, in the same way as skins, furs, and a whole host of other animal products are thus of secondary use to him. Therefore, this writer not only failed to perceive the most obvious truth that every instinct, without any single exception, has reference to the animal which presents it; but he also conceived a purely fict.i.tious inversion of this truth, and wrote an essay to prove a statement which all the instincts in the animal kingdom unite in contradicting.

This example will serve to show, in a striking manner, not only the distance that we have travelled in our interpretation of organic nature between two successive editions of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, but also the amount of verification which this fact furnishes to the theory of natural selection. For, inasmuch as it belongs to the very essence of this theory that all adaptive characters (whether instinctive or structural) must have reference to their own possessors, we find overpowering verification furnished to the theory by the fact now before us--namely, that immediately prior to the enunciation of this theory, the truth that all adaptive characters have reference only to the species which present them was not perceived. In other words, it was the testing of this theory by the facts of nature that _revealed_ to naturalists the general law which the theory, as it were, predicted--the general law that all adaptive characters have primary reference to the species which present them. And when we remember that this is a kind of verification which is furnished by millions of separate cases, the whole ma.s.s of it taken together is, as I have before said, overwhelming.