Cosmos: A Sketch of the Physical Description of the Universe Part 17

I have shown, in another work, what advantages this means of topographical direction, and the early knowledge and application of the magnetic needle gave the Chinese geographers over the Greeks and Romans, to whom, for instance, even the true direction of the Apennines and Pyrenees always remained unknown.*

[footnote] *'Asie Centrale', t. i., Introduction, p. x.x.xviii-xlii. The Western nations, the Greeks and the Romans, knew that magnetism could be communicated to iron, 'and that that metal would retain it for a length of time'. ("Sola haec materia ferri vires, a maguete lapide accipit, 'retinetque longo tempore." Plin., x.x.xiv., 14.) The great discovery of the terrestrial directive force depended, therefore, alone on this, that no one in the West had happened to observe an elongated fragment of magnetic iron stone, or a magnetic iron rod, floating, by the aid of a piece of wood, in water, or suspended in the air by a thread, in such a position as to admit of free motion.

The magnetic power of our globe is manifested on the terrestrial surface in three cla.s.ses of phenomena, one of which exhibits itself in the varying intensity of the force, and the two others in the varying direction of the inclination, and in p 181 the horizontal deviation from the terrestrial meridian of the spot. Their combined action may therefore be graphically represented by three systems of lines, the 'isodynamic, isoclinic', and 'isogonic' (or those of equal force, equal inclination, and equal declination). The distances apart, and the relative positions of these moving, oscillating, and advancing curves, do not always remain the same. The total deviation (variation or declination of the magnetic needle) has not at all changed, or, at any rate, not in any appreciable degree, during a whole century, at any particular point on the Earth's surface,* as, for instance, the western part of the Antilles, or Spitzbergen.

[footnote] *A very slow secular progression, or a local invariability of the magnetic declination, prevents the confusion which might arise from terrestrial influences in the boundaries of land, when, with an utter disregard for the correction of declination, estates are, after long intervals, measured by the mere application of the compa.s.s. "The whole ma.s.s of the bottomless pit of endless litigation by the invariability of the magnetic declination in Jamica and the surrounding Archipelago during the whole of the last century, all surveys of property there having been conducted solely by the compa.s.s." See Robertson in the 'Philosophical Transactions' for 1806, Part ii., p. 348, 'On the Permanency of the Compa.s.s in Jamaica since 1660'. In the mother country (England) the magnetic declination has varied by fully 14 degrees during the period.

In like manner, we observe that the isogonic curves, when they pa.s.s in their secular motion from the surface of the sea to a continent or an island of considerable extent, continue for a long time in the same position, and become inflected as they advance.

These gradual changes in the forms a.s.sumed by the lines in their translatory motions, and which so unequally modify the amount of eastern and western declination, in the course of time render it difficult to trace the transitions and a.n.a.logies of forms in the graphic representations belonging to different centuries.

Each branch of a curve has its history, but this history does not reach further back among the nations of the West than the memorable epoch of the 13th of September, 1492, when the re-discoverer of the New World found a line of no variation 3 degrees west of the meridian of the island of Flores, one of the Azores.*

[footnote] *I have elsewhere shown that, from the doc.u.ments which have come down to us regarding the voyages of Columbus, we can, with much certainty, fix upon three places 'in the Atlantic line of no declination' for the 13th of September, 1492, the 21st of May, 1496, and the 16th of August, 1498.

The Atlantic line of no declination at that period ran from northeast to southwest. It then touched the South American continent a little east of Cape Codera, while it is not observed to reach that continent on the northern coast of the Brazils. (Humboldt, 'Examen Critique de l'Hist. de la Geogr.', t. iii., p. 44-48.) From Gilbert's 'Physiologia Nova de Magnete', we see plainly (and the fact is very remarkable) that in 1600 the declination was still null in the region of the Azores, just as it had been in the time of Columbus (lib. 4, cap. 1). I believe that in my 'Examen Critique' (t. iii., p. 54) I have proved from doc.u.ments that the celebrated line of demarkation by which Pope Alexander VI. divided the Western hemisphere between Portugal and Spain was not drawn through the most western point of the Azores, because Columbus wished to convert a physical into a political division. He attached great importance to the zone (raya) "in which the compa.s.s shows no variation, where air and ocean, the later covered with pastures of sea-weed, exhibit a peculiar const.i.tution, where cooling winds begin to blow, and where [as erroneous observations of the polar star led him to imagine] the form (sphericity) of the Earth is no longer the same."

The whole of Europe, excepting a small p 182 part of Russia, has now a western declination, while at the close of the seventeenth century the needle first pointed due north, in London in 1657, and in Paris in 1669, there being thus a difference of twelve years, notwithstanding the small distance between these two places. In Eastern Russia, to the east of the mouth of the Volga, of Saratow, Nischni-Nowgorod, and Archangel, the easterly declination of Asia is advancing toward us. Two admirable observers, Hansteen and Adolphus Erman, have made us acquainted with the remarkable double curvature of the lines of declination in the vast region of Northern Asia; these being concave toward the pole between Obdorsk, on the Oby, and Turuchansk, and convex between the Lake of Baikal and the Gulf of Ochotsk. In this portion of the earth, in northern Asia, between the mountains of Werchojansk, Jakutsk, and the northern Korea, the isogonic lines form a remarkable closed system. This oval configuration*

recurs regularly and over a great extent of the South Sea, almost as far as the meridian of Pitcairn and the group of the Marquesas Islands, between 20 degrees north and 45 degrees p 183 south lat.

[footnote] *To determine whether the two oval systems of isogonic lines, so singularly included each within itself, will continue to advance for centuries in the same inclosed form, or will unfold and expand themselves, is a question of the highest interest in the problem of the physical causes of terrestrial magnetism. In the Eastern Asiatic nodes the declination increases from without inward, while in the node or oval system of the South Sea the opposite holds good; in fact, at the present time, in the whole South Sea to the east of the meridian of Kamt-schatka, there is no line where the declination is null, or, indeed, in which it is less than 2 degrees (Erman, in Pogg., 'Annal.', bd. x.x.xi, 129). Yet Cornelius Schouten, on Easter Sunday, 1616, appears to have found the declination null somewhere to the southeast of Nukahiva, in 15 degrees south lat. and 132 degrees west long., and consequently in the middle of the present closed isogonal system.

(Hansteen, 'Magnet. der Erde', 1819 28.) It must not be forgotten, in the midst of all these considerations, that we can only follow the direction of the magnetic lines in their progress as they are projected upon the surface of the Earth.

One would almost be inclined to regard this singular configuration of closed, almost concentric, lines of declination as the effect of a local character of that portion of the globe; but if, in the course of centuries, these apparently isolated systems should also advance, we must suppose, as in the case of all great natural forces, that the phenomenon arises from some general cause.

The horary variations of the declination, which, although dependent upon true time, are apparently governed by the Sun, as long as it remains above the horizon, diminish in angular value with the magnetic lat.i.tude of place.

Near the equator, for instance, in the island of Rawak, they scarcely amount to three or four minutes, while they are from thirteen to fourteen minutes in the middle of Europe. As in the whole northern hemisphere the north point of the needle moves from east to west on an average from 8 1/2 in the morning until 1 1/2 at mid-day, while in the southern hemisphere the same north point moves from west to east,* attention has recently been drawn, with much justice, to the fact that there must be a region of the Earth between the terrestrial and the magnetic equator where no horary deviations in the declination are to be observed.

[footnote] *Arago, in the 'Annuaire', 1836, p. 284, and 1840, p. 330-338.

This fourth curve, which might be called the 'curve of no motion', or, rather, 'the line of no variation of horary declination', has not yet been discovered.

The term 'magnetic poles' has been applied to those points of the Earth's surface where the horizontal power disappears, and more importance has been attached to these points than properly appertains to them;* and in like manner, the curve, where the inclination of the needle is null, has been termed the 'magnetic equator'.

[footnote] *Gauss, 'Allg. Theorie des Erdmagnet.', 31.

The position of this line and its secular change of configuration have been made an object of careful investigation in modern times. According to the admirable work of Duperrey,* who crossed the magnetic equator six times between 1822 and 1825, the nodes of the two equators, that is to say, the two points at which the line without inclination intersects the terrestrial equator, and consequently pa.s.ses from one henisphere into the other, are so unequally placed, that in 1825 the node near the island of St. Thomas, on the western p 184 coast of Africa, was 188 1/2 degrees distant from the node in the South Sea, close to the little islands of Gilbert, nearly in the meridian of the Viti group.

[footnote] *Duperrey, 'De la Configuration de l'Equateur Magnetique', in the 'Annales de Chimie', t. xlv., p. 371 and 379. (See also, Morlet, in the 'Memoires presentes par divers Savans a l'Acad. Roy. des Sciences', t. iii., p. 132.

In the beginning of the present century, at an elevation of 11,936 feet above the level of the sea, I made an astronomical determination of the point (7 degrees 1' south lat., 48 degrees 40' west long. from Paris), where, in the interior of the New Continent, the chain of the Andes is intersected by the magnetic equator between Quito and Lima. To the west of this point, the magnetic equator continues to traverse the South Sea in the southern hemisphere, at the same time slowly drawing near the terrestrial equator. It first pa.s.ses into the northern hemisphere a little before it approaches the Indian Archipelago, just touches the southern points of Asia, and enters the African continent to the west of Socotora, almost in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, where it is most distant from the terrestrial equator. After intersecting the unknown regions of the interior of Africa in a southwest direction, the magnetic equator re-enters the south tropical zone in the Gulf of Guinea, and retreats so far from the terrestrial equator that it touches the Brazilian coast near Os Ilheos, north of Porto Seguro, in 15 degrees south lat. From thence to the elevated plateaux of the Cordilleras, between the silver mines of micuipampa and Caxamarca, the ancient seat of the Incas, where I observed the inclination, the line traverses the whole of South America, which in these lat.i.tudes is as much a magnetic 'terra incognita' as the interior of Africa.

The recent observations of Sabine* have shown that the node near the island of St. Thomas has moved 4 degrees from east to west between 1825 and 1837.

[footnote] *See the remarkable chart of isoclinic lines in the Atlantic Ocean for the years 1825 and 1837, in Sabine's 'Contributions to Terrestrial Magnetism', 1840, p. 134.

It would be extremely important to know whether the opposite pole, near the Gilbert Islands, in the South Sea, has aproached the meridian of the Carolinas in a westerly direction. These general remarks will be sufficient to connect the different systems of isoclinic non-parallel lines with the great phenomenon of equilibrium which is manifested in the magnetic equator.

It is no small advantage, in the exposition of the laws of terrestrial magnetism, that the magnetic equator (whose oscillatory change of form and whose nodal motion exercise an influence on the inclination of the needle in the remotest districts of the world, in consequence of the altered magnetic lat.i.tudes)* should traverse the p 185 ocean throughout its whole course, excepting about one fifth, and consequently be made so much more accessible, owing to the remarkable relations in s.p.a.ce between the sea and land, and to the means of which we are now possessed for determining with much exactness both the declination and the inclination at sea.

[footnote] *Humboldt, 'Ueber die secul?re Ver?nderung der Magnetischen Inclination' (On the secular Change in the Magnetic Inclination), in Pogg.

'Annal.', bd. sv., s. 322.

We have described the distribution of magnetism on the surface of our planet according to the two forms of 'declination' and 'inclination'; it now, therefore, remains for us to speak of the 'intensity of the force' which is graphically expressed by isodynamic curves (or lines of equal intensity).

The investigation and measurement of this force by the oscillations of a vertical or horizontal needle have only excited a general and lively interest in its telluric relations since the beginning of the nineteenth century. The application of delicate optical and chronometrical instruments has rendered the measurement of this horizontal power susceptible of a degree of accuracy far surpa.s.sing that attained in any other magnetic determinations. The isogonic lines are the more important in their immediate application to navigation, while we find from the most recent views that isodynamic lines, especially those which indicate the horizontal force, are the most valuable elements in the theory of terrestrial magnetism.*

[footnote] *Gauss, 'Resultate der Beob. des Magn. Vereins', 1838, 21; Sabine, 'Report on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity', p. 63.

One of the earliest facts yielded by observation is, that the intensity of the total force increases from the equator toward the pole.*

[footnote] *The following is the history of the discovery of the law that the intensity of the force increases (in general) with the magnetic lat.i.tude. When I was anxious to attach myself, in 1798, to the expedition of Captain Bandin, who intended to circ.u.mnavigate the globe, I was requested by Borda, who took a warm interest in the success of my project, to examine the oscillations of a vertical needle in the magnetic meridian in different lat.i.tudes in each hemisphere, in order to determine whether the intensity of the force was the same, or whether it varied in different places. During my travels in the tropical regions of America, I paid much attention to this subject. I observed that the same needle, which in the s.p.a.ce of ten minutes made 245 oscillations in Paris, 246 in the Havana, and 242 in Mexico, performed only 216 oscillations during the same period at St. Carlos del Rio Negro (1 degree 53' north lat. and 80 degrees 40' west long. from Paris), on the magnetic equator, i.e., the line in which the inclination =0; in Peru (7 degrees 1' south lat. and 80 degrees 40' west long. from Paris) only 211;while at Lima (12 degrees 2' south lat.) the number rose to 219. I found, in the years intervening between 1799 and 1803, that the whole force, if we a.s.sume it at 1.0000 on the magnetic equator in the Peruvian Andes, between Micuipampa and Caxamarca, may be expressed at Paris by 1.3482, in Mexico by 1.3155, in San Carlos del Rio Negro by 1.0480, and in Lima by 1.0773. When I developed this law of the variable intensity of terrestrial magnetic force, and supported it by the numerical value of observations inst.i.tuted in 104 different places, in a Memoir read before the Paris Inst.i.tute on the 26th Frimaire, An. XIII. (of which the mathematical portion was contributed by M. Biot), the facts were regarded as altogether new. It was only after the reading of the paper, as Biot expressly states (Lametherie, 'Journal de Physique', t. lix., p. 446, note 2) and as I have repeated in 'the Relation Historique', t. i., p. 262, note 1, that M. de Rossel communicated to Biot his oscillation experiments made six years earlier (between 1791 and 1794) in Van Diemen's Land, in Java, and in Amboyna. These experiments gave evidence of the same law of decreasing force in the Indian Archipelago. It must, I think be supposed, that this excellent man, when he wrote his work, was not aware of the regularity of the augmentation and diminution of the intensity as before the reading of my paper he never mentioned this (certainly not unimportant) physical law to any of our mutual friends, La Place, Delambre, p.r.o.ny, or Biot. It was not till 1808, four years after my return from America that the observations made by M. de Rossel were published in the 'Voyage de l'Entrecasteaux', t.

ii., p. 287 , 291, 321, 480, and 644. Up to the present day it is still usual, in all the tables of magnetic intensity which have been published in Germany (Hausteen, 'Magnet. der Erde', 1819, s. 71; Gauss, 'Beob. des Magnet. Vereins', 1838, s. 36-39; Erman, 'Physikal. Beob.', 1841, s.

529-579), in England (Sabine, 'Report on Magnet. Intensity', 1838, p. 43-62; 'Contributions to Terrestrial Magnetism', 1843), and in France (Becquerel, 'Traite de Electr. et de Magnet.', t. vii., p. 354-367), to reduce the oscillations observed in any part of the Earth to the standard of force which I found on the magnetic equator in Northern Peru, so that, according to the unit thus arbitrarily a.s.sumed, the intensity of the magnetic force at Paris is put down as 1.348. The observations made by Lamanon in the unfortunate expedition of La Perouse, during the stay at Teneriffe (1785), and on the voyage to Macao (1787), are still older than those of Admiral Rossel. They were sent to the Academy of Sciences, and it is known that they were in the possession of Condorcet in the July of 1787 (Becquerel, t.

vii., p. 320); but, notwithstanding the most careful search, they are not now to be found. From a copy of a very important letter of Lamanon, now in the possession of Captain Duperrey, which was addressed to the then perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences, but was omitted in the narrative of the 'Voyage de La Perouse', it is stated "that the attractive force of the magnet is less in the tropics than when we approach the poles, and that the magnetic intensity deduced from the number of oscillations of the needle of the inclination-compa.s.s varies and increases with the lat.i.tude." If the Academicians, while they continued to expect the return of the unfortunate La Perouse, had felt themselves justified, in the course of 1787, in publishing a truth which had been independently discovered by no less than three different travelers, the theory of terrestrial magnetism would have been extended by the knowledge of a new cla.s.s of observations, dating eighteen years earlier than they now do. This simple statement of facts may probably justify the observations contained in the third volume of my 'Relation Historique' p. 615): "The observations on the variation of terrestrial magnetism, to which I have devoted myself for thirty-two years, by means of instruments which admit of comparison with one another, in America, Europe, and Asia, embrace an area extending over 188 degrees of longitude, from the frontier of Chinese Dzoungarie to the west of the South Sea bathing the coasts of Mexico and Peru, and reaching from 60 degrees north lat. to 12 degrees south lat. I regard the discovery of the law of the decrement of magnetic force from the pole to the equator as the most important result of my American voyage." Although not absolutely certain, it is very probable that Condorcet read Lamanon's letter of July, 1787, at a meeting of the Paris Academy of Sciences; and such a simple reading I regard as a sufficient act of publication. ('Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes', 1842, p. 463.) The first recognition of the law belongs, therefore, beyond all question, to the comparison of La Perouse; but, long disregarded or forgotten, the knowledge of the law that the intensity of the magnetic force of the Earth varied with the lat.i.tude, did not, I conceive, acquire an existence in science until the publication of my observations from 1798 to 1804. The object and the length of this note will not be indifferent to those who are familiar with the connection with it, and who, from their own experience, are aware that we are apt to attach some value to that which has cost us the uninterrupted labor of five years, under the pressure of a tropical climate, and of perilous mountain expeditions.

p 186 The knowledge which we possess of the quant.i.ty of this increase, and of all the numerical relations of the law of intensity p 187 affecting the whole Earth, is especially due, since 1819, to the unwearied activity of Edward Sabine, who, after having observed the oscillations of the same needles at the American north pole, in Greenland, at Spitzbergen, and on the coasts of Guinea and Brazil, has continued to collect and arrange all the facts capable of explaining the direction of the isodynamic system in zones for a small part of South America. These lines are not parallel to lines of equal inclination (isoclinic line), and the intensity of the force is not at its minimum at the magnetic equator, as has been supposed, nor is it even equal at all parts of it. If we compare Erman's observations in the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean, where a faint zone (0.706) extends from Angola over the island of St. Helena to the Brazilian coast, with the most recent investigations of the celebrated navigator James Clark Ross, we shall find that on the surface of our planet the force increases almost in the relation of 1:3 toward the magnetic south pole, where Victoria Land extends from Cape Crozier toward the volcano Erebus, which has been raised to an elevation of 12,600 feet above the ice.*

[footnote] *From the observations. .h.i.therto collected, it appears that the maximum of intensity for the whole surface of the Earth is 2.052, and the minimum 0.706. Both phenomena occur in the southern hemisphere; the former in 73 degrees 47' S. lat., and 169 degrees 30'E. long. from Paris, near Mount Crozier, west-northwest of the south magnetic pole, at a place where Captain James Ross found the inclination of the needle to be 87 degrees 11'

(Sabine, 'Contributions to Terrestrial Magnetism', 1843, No. 5, p. 231); the latter, observed by Erman at 19 degrees 59' S. lat., and 37 degrees 24' W.

long. from Paris, 320 miles eastward from the Brazilian coast of Espiritu Santo (Erman, 'Phys. Beob.', 1841, s. 570), at a point where the inclination is only 7 degrees 55'. The actual ratio of the two intensities is therefore as 1 to 2.906. It was long believed that the greatest intensity of the magnetic force was only two and a half times as great as the weakest exhibited on the Earth's surface. (Sabine, 'Report on Magnetic Intensity', p. 82.)

If the intensity near the magnetic south pole p 188 be expressed by 2.052 (the unit still employed being the intensity which I discovered on the magnetic equator in Northern Peru), Sabine found it was only 1.624 at the magnetic north pole near Melville Island (70 degrees 27'

north lat.), while it is 1.803 at New York, in the United States, which has almost the same lat.i.tude as Naples.

The brilliant discoveries of Oersted, Arago, and Faraday have established a more intimate connection between the electric tension of the atmosphere and the magnetic tension of our terrestrial globe. While Oestred has discovered that electricity excites magnetism in the neighborhood of the conducting body, Faraday's experiments have elicited electric currents from the liberated magnetism. Magnetism is one of the manifold forms under which electricity reveals itself. The ancient vague presentiment of the ident.i.ty of electric and magnetic attraction has been verified in our own times.

"When electrum (amber)," says Pliny, in the spirit of the Ionic natural philosophy of Thales,* is 'animated' by friction and heat, it will attract bark and dry leaves precisely as the loadstone attracts iron."