Cooley's Cyclopaedia of Practical Receipts Volume Ii Part 30

=LITHOG'RAPHY.= The art of tracing letters, figures, and other designs, on stone, and transferring them to paper by impression. Our notice of this beautiful and useful art must necessarily be brief.

There are two methods of lithography in general use. In the one, a drawing is made on the stone with a lithographic crayon, or with lithographic ink; in the other method the design is made on lithographic paper, which, on being moistened and pa.s.sed through the press, leaves its design on the surface of the stone, reversed. In either method, water acidulated with nitrous acid, oil of vitriol, or hydrochloric acid, is poured over the stone, and this, by removing the alkali from the chalk or ink, leaves the design on it in a permanent form, at the same time that it 'etches' away a portion of the lights, and renders the surface more absorbent of water.

The process of lithographic printing is as follows:--Water is thrown over the stone, the roller charged with printing ink is pa.s.sed over the surface, the paper is applied, and a copy is obtained by the action of the lithographic press. The same process must be had recourse to for each copy. The nature of the stone is such that it retains with great tenacity the resinous and oily substances contained in the ink or crayon employed to form the design and also absorbs water freely; this, combined with the peculiar affinity between resinous and oily substances, and their mutual power of repelling water, occasions the ink on the printing roller to adhere to the design, and to leave untouched the lights.

The stones are prepared for lithography by polishing in the ordinary way; the style of work for which they are intended determining the degree of labour bestowed upon them. For crayon drawings the surface should have a fine grain, but the finish of the stone must depend upon the desired softness of the intended drawing; for writing or drawing on in ink the surface must receive a higher polish, and must be finished off with pumice-stone and water.

The best lithographic stones are obtained from Solenhofen, near Munich, and from Pappenheim, on the banks of the Danube. The white lias which lies immediately under the blue, near Bath, also yields good lithographic stones, and furnishes the princ.i.p.al portion of those employed in this country. See CRAYONS, INK and PAPER.

=LITHONTRYP'TICS.= _Syn._ LITHOTRYPTICS, LITHONTRYPTICA, L. Under this head are intended numerous substances (LITHICS; LITHICA, L.) used to prevent the formation of urinary calculi, or to dissolve them when already formed. Those employed with the former intention are more correctly termed ANTILITHICS (ANTILITHICA, L.), and those with the latter, LITHONTRYPTICS, or LYTHONLYTICS (LITHONTRYPTICA, LITHONLYTICA, L.).

The following are the princ.i.p.al substances included under this head by pharmacological writers:--Alkalies and their carbonates, benzoic acid, borax, carbonate of lithia, effervescing solution of lithia, carbonic acid, cinnamic acid, diluents (generally), diuretics (generally), juniper, malic acid, Malvern waters, mineral acids, nitrosaccharate of lead, opium, phosphate of soda, phosphoric acid, poppies, turpentines, uva ursi, vegetable acids, vegetable astringents, vegetable bitters, Vichy waters, wall pellitory, water (pure).

=LIT'MUS.= _Syn._ TURNSOLE; LACMUS, LACCA CaeRULEA, L. MUSIVA, L. MUSCI, L.

A blue substance prepared by the united influence of water, air, ammonia, and either pota.s.sa or soda, from _Rocella tinctoria_, _Lecanora tartarea_, or any of the other tinctorial lichens capable of yielding archil, by a process essentially similar to that adopted for the latter substance, except that chalk is generally used to form the paste, which is moulded into cakes and dried.

_Pur., &c._ "Soluble in both water and alcohol. Its blue colour is reddened by acids, and is restored by the addition of alkalies." (Ph. L.

1836.) It is extensively used by the dyer as a red and crimson colouring matter, and by the chemist as a test for acids.

The colouring matter of litmus, when purified as much as possible, may be kept for an indefinite period unaltered in glycerin. Litmus is treated with hot water, and the solution, after concentration, is mixed with a sufficient quant.i.ty of alcohol (of 80 per cent.) to precipitate the colouring matter. After standing for twenty hours the alcohol is poured off, and carries with it a dirty blue foreign substance, which frequently occurs in litmus, and is not altered by acids. The sediment is treated with hot water, which dissolves it on account of the pota.s.sium carbonate which is present.

To remove this carbonate, sulphuric acid is added till the liquid a.s.sumes a faint wine tint; it is then heated to boiling for a few minutes, and again rendered blue by the addition of a few drops of lime water. After the lapse of twenty-four hours the liquid is filtered, and evaporated to a syrup, and left all night in a cool place, when the pota.s.sium sulphate crystallises out in the form of a crust. It is then filtered through a moist cotton mixed with glycerin, and carefully preserved from damp.[22]

See ARCHIL, CUDBEAR, &c.

[Footnote 22: J. C. Martenson, from 'Chem. Centr.,' translated into the 'Journal of the Chemical Society.']

=LIVE-LONG.= Digestive candy. See CANDYING.

=LIV'ER.= _Syn._ HEPAR, L. A large abdominal viscus, the exclusive duty of which, until recently, was stated by physiologists to be to secrete bile; but the secretion of sugar for combustion in the lungs or capillaries is now said to be one of its chief duties. The liver is subject to several diseases, both functional and organic, among which inflammation (hepat.i.tis) holds the most prominent place. The acute form of this disease is ushered in with pain in the region of the liver, with sickness, costiveness, and a strong, hard, and frequent pulse, with great pain about the clavicle and shoulders. There is cough, oppressed breathing, and often vomiting of bilious matter. The urine is scanty, and of a saffron-yellow colour, and the skin and eyes are also tinged yellow. The treatment consists chiefly in purging with salines accompanied with mercurials, the use of antimonials, and a blister applied over the region of the liver.

Bitter tonics, as calumba, cascarilla, and gentian may afterwards be had recourse to; and if the patient resides in a hot climate a change to a temperate one should be made, if possible. Chronic hepat.i.tis requires similar treatment, but of a less active character. The more usual causes of diseases of the liver, besides those common to the other viscera, are residence in a hot climate, and the excessive use of highly seasoned food and alcoholic liquors.

=Liv'er.= _Syn._ HEPAR, L. In _chemistry_ and _pharmacy_, a term formerly applied to numerous substances, on account of their colour; as liver of antimony (HEPAR ANTIMONII), liver of sulphur (HEPAR SULPHURIS), &c.

=Liver, Edible.= The livers of animals, such as the bullock, the calf, and the sheep, contain a large amount of nitrogenous matter,[23] as may be seen from the following a.n.a.lysis by Payen:

[Footnote 23: Hence the instinct that leads man to cook it with a food rich in carbon--such as fat bacon.]

_Composition of Calf's Liver._

Nitrogenous matter 2010 Fat 358 Carbo-hydrates (amyloid matter) 045 Saline matter 154 Water 7233 ------ 9803

They are generally regarded as indigestible articles of diet, and as such should be avoided by dyspeptics.

It is of great importance to have the livers of animals thoroughly cooked, so as to ensure the destruction of a dangerous parasite--the _Distoma hepatica_, the liver fluke--that frequently infests them.

The foie gras, of which the celebrated Strasbourg pie is made, is the abnormally enlarged or, rather, diseased liver of the goose, brought to its enormous size and fatty condition by subjecting the bird to close confinement in a hot place and overfeeding it.

=LIVER AND BACON.= The liver must be washed, not soaked, then wiped dry and cut into slices. Flour each slice. Remove the rind from the bacon, and cut it into rashers. Let the bacon be fried first, then stand it in a hot dish before the fire during the time the liver is being fried in the melted fat from the bacon. When the liver is cooked place it on the bacon.

Next mix a dessert-spoonful of flour into a smooth paste with a cupful of water, stir in it a pinch of pepper and salt, and pour it into the frying-pan; let it just boil, stirring it meanwhile, and, lastly, strain it over the liver and bacon.

=LIXIVIA'TION.= The process of dissolving out or extracting the saline matter of bodies, more especially of ashes, the residua of distillations, &c., by means of ablution or digestion in water. The solution so obtained is called a 'LYE,' 'LEY,' or 'LIXIVIUM,' and the salts resulting from the evaporation of such solutions 'LIXIVIAL SALTS,'

=LLA'MA.= _Syn._ GUANACO; LAMA, L. A genus of animals of the family _Bovidae_ and tribe _Camelina_. The llama is confined to South America, and may be regarded as the representative of the camel in the New World. The most important species are _Lama vicugna_ (the VICUNA) and _L. Guanacus_ (the GUANACO). The wool of llamas is woven into stuffs for _ponchos_, and made into cords, sacks, &c. See ALPACA.

=LOAD'STONE.= _Syn._ LODESTONE, MAGNESIAN STONE, MAGNETIC IRONSTONE.

Native magnetic oxide of iron (Fe_{3}O_{4}). It is often found ma.s.sive, frequently crystallised, and occasionally in beds of considerable thickness. Its colour varies from reddish black to deep grey. Native magnets from Arabia, China, and Bengal are commonly of a reddish colour, and are powerfully attractive. Those found in Germany and England have the colour of unwrought iron; those from Macedonia are more black and dull.

=LOAM.= A native mixture of clay, sand, and oxide of iron, with more or less chalk. Loamy soils are of this description. They are called heavy or light, according to the proportion of clay; and sandy, calcareous, or gravelly, just as sand, gravel, or chalk, form a characteristic portion of them.

=LOBEL'IA.= _Syn._ INDIAN TOBACCO; LOBELIA (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L.

"The flowering herb of _Lobelia inflata_" (B. P., Ph. L.), or bladder-podded lobelia. The herb has an unpleasant odour, and an acrid, burning, nauseous taste, somewhat resembling that of tobacco. In small doses (1 to 3 gr.) it is expectorant and diaph.o.r.etic; in larger doses (5 to 15 gr.) nauseant and emetic; and in excessive doses, poisonous.

According to Dr Pereira, its princ.i.p.al value is that of an anti-spasmodic.

It has been highly recommended by Dr Elliotson in spasmodic asthma. He commences with small doses, and gradually increases them unless headache or nausea occurs. Others give a full dose at or before the commencement of the fit. It has been also tried in croup, hooping-cough, and other diseases of the respiratory organs, with variable effect.

Lobelia is the panacea of Dr Coffin, the author of the pretended system of medicine irreverently called 'Coffinism.'

=LOBEL'IC ACID.= The acid existing in decoction of lobelia. It closely resembles gallic acid. It reddens litmus, and is precipitated by several metallic salts.

=LOBEL'INE.= _Syn._ LOBELINA, L. A light yellowish-brown oily substance, found by Calhoun, of Philadelphia, in _Lobelia inflata_. It is volatile, soluble in alcohol, ether, and water; and in oil of turpentine, oil of almonds, and some other fixed oils; with the acids it forms crystallisable salts, which are soluble. It may be obtained from the seeds by the action of alcohol acidulated with acetic acid, evaporating, treating with magnesia and then with ether, and again evaporating. 1 oz. of the seeds furnishes 2 gr. When perfectly pure, 1 gr. will kill a large dog.

=LOB'STERS.= See Sh.e.l.l FISH.

=LOCK'SOY.= Rice boiled to a paste and drawn into threads. Used to thicken soups. It is imported from China.

=LODGING-HOUSES.= The following sections of the Public Health Act of 1875 embody the regulations in force with regard to _common_ lodging-houses:

(S. 76.) Every local authority shall keep a register, in which shall be entered the names and residences of the keepers of all common lodging-houses within the district of such authority, and the situation of every such house, and the number of lodgers authorised according to this Act to be received therein.

A copy of any entry in such register certified by the person having charge of the register to be a true copy shall be received in all courts and on all occasions as evidence, and shall be sufficient proof of the matter registered without production of the register, or of any doc.u.ment or thing on which the entry is founded; and a certified copy of any such entry shall be supplied gratis by the person having charge of the register to any person applying at a reasonable time for the same.

(S. 77.) A person shall not keep a common lodging-house or receive a lodger therein until the house has been registered in accordance with the provisions of this Act, nor until his name as the keeper thereof has been entered in the register kept under this Act; provided that when the person so registered dies his widow or any member of his family may keep the house as a common lodging-house for not more than four weeks after his death without being registered as the keeper thereof.

(S. 78.) A house shall not be registered as a common lodging-house until it has been inspected and approved for the purpose by some officer of the local authority; and the local authority may refuse to register as the keeper of a common lodging-house a person who does not produce to the local authority a certificate of character in such form as the local authority direct, signed by three inhabitant house-holders of the parish respectively rated to the relief of the poor of the parish within which the lodging-house is situated, for property of the yearly rateable value of 6 or upwards.

(S. 79.) The keeper of every common lodging-house shall, if required in writing by the local authority so to do, affix and keep undefaced and legible a notice with the words, "Registered common lodging-house," in some conspicuous place on the outside of such house.

The keeper of any such house who, after requisition in writing from the local authority, refuses or neglects to affix or renew such notice, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding 5, and to a further penalty of 10s.

for every day that such refusal or neglect continues after conviction.

(S. 80.) Every local authority shall from time to time make bye-laws:

1. For fixing from time to time, varying the number of lodgers who may be received into a common lodging-house, and for the separation of the s.e.xes therein; and--

2. For promoting cleanliness and ventilation in such houses; and--

3. For the giving of notices and taking precautions in the case of any infectious disease; and--

4. Generally for the well-ordering of such houses.