Composition-Rhetoric Part 75

+77. Suggestions concerning the Use of Prepositions.+--Mistakes are frequently made in the use of the preposition. This use cannot be fully discussed here, but a partial list of words with the required preposition will be given.

afraid _of_.

agree _with_ a person.

agree _to_ a proposal.

bestow _upon_.

compare _to_ (to show similarity).

compare _with_ (to show similarity or difference).

comply _with_.

conform _to_.

convenient _for_ or _to_.

correspond _to_ or _with_ (a thing).

correspond _with_ (a person).

dependent _on_.

differ _from_ (a person or thing).

differ _from_ or _with_ (an opinion).

different _from_.

disappointed _in_.

frightened _at_ or _by_.

glad _of_.

need _of_.

profit _by_.

scared _by_.

taste _of_ (food).

taste _for_ (art).

thirst _for_ or _after_.

_Like_, originally an adjective or adverb, is often, in some of its uses, called a preposition. It governs the objective case, and should not be used as a conjunction: [She looks like _me;_ not, She looks like I do].

The appropriate _conjunction_ here would be _as_: [She speaks _as_ I do].

The prepositions _in_ and _at_ denote rest or motion _in_ a place; _into_ denotes motion _toward_ a place: [He is _in_ the garden. He went _into_ the garden].

+78. Prepositional Phrases.+--The preposition, with its object, forms what is termed a prepositional phrase. This phrase is _adjective_ in force when it modifies a substantive; and _adverbial_, when it modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb: [In the cottage _by the sea_ (adjective). He sat _on the bench_ (adverb)].

Some prepositions were originally adverbs; such as, _in, on, off, up_, and _to_. Many of them are still used adverbially or as adverbial suffixes: [The ship lay to. A storm came on].

CONJUNCTIONS

+79. Cla.s.ses of Conjunctions.+--Conjunctions are divided according to their use into two general cla.s.ses: the _coordinate_ and the _subordinate_ conjunctions.

_Coordinate_ conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank; _subordinate_ conjunctions connect clauses of unequal rank.

The princ.i.p.al coordinate conjunctions are _and, but, or, nor_, and _for_.

_And_ is said to be _copulative_ because it merely adds something to what has just been said. Other conjunctions having a copulative use are _also, besides, likewise, moreover_, and _too_; and the correlative conjunctions, _both ... and, not only ... but also_, etc. These are termed _correlative_ because they occur together. _But_ is termed the _adversative_ coordinate conjunction because it usually introduces something adverse to what has already been said. Other words of an adversative nature are _yet, however, nevertheless, only, notwithstanding_, and _still_. _Or_ is alternative in its force. This conjunction implies that there is a choice to be made.

Other similar conjunctions are _either ... or, neither ... nor, or, else_.

_Either ... or_ and _neither ... nor_ are termed _correlative_ conjunctions, and they introduce alternatives. _For, because, such_, and as are _coordinate_ conjunctions only in such a case as the following: [She has been running, for she is out of breath].

Some of the most common conjunctions of the _subordinate_ type are those of place and time, cause, condition, purpose, comparison, concession, and result. _That_ introducing a subordinate clause may be called a _substantive_ conjunction: [I knew _that_ I ought to go].

There are a number of subordinate conjunctions used in pairs which are called _correlatives_. The princ.i.p.al pairs are _as ... so, as ... as, so ... as, if ... then, though ... yet_.

+80. Simple and Compound Sentences.+--In the first section of this review the parts of a sentence were named as the _subject_ and _predicate_.

The _subject_ may itself consist of two parts joined by one of the coordinating conjunctions: [Alice _and_ her cousin are here]. The predicate may be formed in a similar fashion: [John played _and_ made merry all day long]. Both subject and predicate may be so compounded: [John _and_ Richard climbed the ladder _and_ jumped on the hay].

In all these cases the sentence, consisting as it does of but one subject and one predicate, is said to be _simple_.

When two clauses--that is, two groups of words containing each a subject and predicate--are united by a coordinate conjunction, the sentence is said to be _compound_: [John wished to play Indian, _but_ Richard preferred to play railroad].

The coordinating conjunction need not actually appear in the sentence. Its omission is then indicated by the punctuation: [John wished to play Indian; Richard preferred another game].

+81. Subordinate Conjunctions and Complex Sentences.+--A _subordinate_ conjunction is used to join a subordinate clause to a princ.i.p.al clause, thus forming a _complex_ sentence. The test to be applied to a clause in order to ascertain whether it is a subordinate clause, is this: if any group of words in a sentence, containing a subject and predicate, fulfills the office of some single part of speech, it is a _subordinate_ clause. In the sentence, "I went because I knew that I must," the clause, "because I knew that I must" states the reason for the action named in the main clause. It, therefore, stands in _adverbial_ relation to the verb "went."

"That I must" is the object of "knew." It, therefore, stands in a _substantive_ relation to the verb.

Subordinate clauses are often introduced by subordinate conjunctions (sometimes by relative p.r.o.nouns or adverbs); but, whenever such a clause appears in a sentence, otherwise simple, the sentence is _complex_.

If it appears in a sentence otherwise compound, the sentence is _compound-complex_.

The different types of subordinate clauses will be discussed later.

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

+82. Phrases.+--Phrases are cla.s.sified both as to structure and use.

From the standpoint of structure, a phrase is cla.s.sified from its introductory word or words, as:--

1. _Prepositional_: [They were _in the temple_].

2. _Infinitive_: [He tried _to make us hear_].

3. _Participial_: [_Having finished my letter_].

Cla.s.sified as to use, a phrase may be--

1. A _noun_: [_To be good is to be truly great_].

2. An _adjective_: [The horse is an animal _of much intelligence_].