Complete Works of Plutarch Part 58

From these pa.s.sages the Stoics took the opinion that the leading element is about the heart. That the appet.i.tive element is placed in the intestines in many places he declares; in these verses, for example (O.

xviii. 54):--

But my belly's call is urgent on me, that evil worker,--

and (O. xvii. 286):--

But now may conceal a ravening belly, a thing accursed.

And the causes which belong to the pa.s.sionate element of the soul he says happen by nature. For wrath created by grief he shows is a kind of effervescence of the blood and the spirit in it as in the following (I.

i. 103):--

His dark soul filled with fury, and his eyes flashing like flames of fire.

For he seemed to call spirit [Greek omitted], i.e. wrath, and this in the case of those who are angry he thinks is extended and inflamed.

Again the spirit, if there is fear, is perturbed and made cold, generates tremors and terrors and pallors in the body. Pallor, by the heat coursing into the interior ruddiness leaves the surface. Tremor, because being, confined within the spirit it shakes the body. Terror, because when the moisture is congealed the hairs are contracted and stand on end. All of these Homer clearly indicates when he says (I. xv.

4):--

Pallid from fear.

And (I. vii. 479):--

Pallid fear lay hold on him.

(I. x. 95):--

My valiant members tremble.

And (I. xxiv. 358):--

The old man heard, his mind confus'd with dread, So grievously he fear'd that every hair Upon his bended head did stand on end.

According to these pa.s.sages for "feared" he says "frozen" and "fear" he calls "freezing." On the other hand, for "daring" and "courage" he uses [Greek omitted], "heat." Evil effects, he distinguishes in these ways.

Again when Aristotle considers indignation a mercy among the generous emotions (for when good men are stirred because their neighors seem to succeed beyond their worth, it is called indignation. When they, beyond their desert, have misfortunes, it is called pity.) These two Homer considers to belong, to the good, for he reckons them as belonging to Zeus. Other pa.s.sages he has as well as the following (I. xi. 542):--

But Jove, high-throned, the soul of Ajax filled with fear.

And in other places he pities him being chased about the wall.

What opinion the poet had about virtue and vice he shows in many places.

For since one part of the soul is intelligent and rational, and the other devoid of reason and open to emotions, and on this account man has a middle position between G.o.d and brute, he thinks the highest, virtue, is divine, and the other extremity, evil, is brutelike. Just as later on Aristotle thought, he adopts these principles in his companions. For he always considers good men to be like G.o.ds, and as he says (I. ii.

167):--

By a counsel not, unworthy of Zeus.

Among the evil ones he names cowards (I. xiii. 102):--

Like to timid stags,--

and to sheep without a shepherd and to hares in flight. About those borne headlong and heedlessly to anger (I. xvii. 20):--

Nor pard, nor lion, nor the forest boar, Fiercest of beasts, and provident of his strength In their own esteem With Panthous' sons for courage nor may vie.

The laments of those grieving to no purpose he compares to the sounds of birds (O. xvi. 218):--

Where Younglings the country folk have taken from the nest ere yet they are fledged.

The Stoics who place virtue in apathy follow the pa.s.sages in which he takes up every feeling, saying about grief (I. xix. 218):--

Behoves us bury out of sight our dead, Steeling our heart and weeping but a day.

And (I. xvi. 7):--

Why weep over Patroclus as a girl?

About anger (I. xviii. 107):--

May strife perish from G.o.ds and men.

About fear (I. v. 252):--

Do not speak of fear, if thou thinkest to persuade me.

And (O. xv. 494):--

Struck and smitten seeing fate and death, he fell heroicly from the sword. So those challenged to single combat obey fearlessly, and several arise to take the place of one.

And the wounded man has none the less abiding courage.

(I. xi. 388):--

And now because thy shaft has grazed my foot, thou mak'st thy empty boast.

And every valiant person is likened to a lion, boar, to a torrent and whirlwind.

Now the Peripatetics think that freedom from emotion is unattainable by men. They bring in a certain mean; by taking away excess of feeling, they define virtue by moderation. And Homer brings in the best men neither feeble nor altogether fearless nor devoid of pain, but yet differing from the worst in not being overcome extravagantly by their feelings. For he says (I. xiii. 279):--

The cowards color changes, nor his soul Within his heart its even balance keeps But changing still, from foot to foot he shifts, And in his bosom loudly beats his heart Expecting death; and chatter all his teeth.

The brave man's color changes not with fear, He knows the ambush ent'ring.

For it is evident that by taking away excessive fear from the good man he leaves the mean between the two. The same must be thought about the like emotions, pain and anger. To this effect is that verse of his (I.

vii. 215):--

The Trojans' limbs beneath them shrank with fear, E'en Hector's heart beat quicker in his breast, The others, even at the sight, trembled.

But he, in the midst of dangers being brave, was only troubled. So he makes Dolon and Lycaon feeling fear; Ajax and Menelaus, turning gradually and going away step by step, as lions driven from their quarry. In the same way he shows the differences of those who grieve and also of those who rejoice. As Odysseus, relating the way he deceived the Cyclops, says (O. ix. 413):--

My heart within me laughed.