Christianity and Greek Philosophy Part 40

[Footnote 725: "That which Aristotle calls 'form' is not to be confounded with what we may perhaps call shape [or figure]; a hand severed from the arm, for instance, has still the outward shape of a hand, but, according to Aristotelian apprehension, it is only a hand now as to matter, and not as to form; an actual hand, a hand as to form, is only that which can do the proper work of a hand."--Schwegler's "History of Philosophy," p. 122.]

[Footnote 726: "Metaphysics," bk. vii. ch. ii.]

[Footnote 727: "Metaphysics," bk. viii. ch. vi.]

[Footnote 728: "Entelechy indicates the perfected act, the completely actual."--Schw.]

[Footnote 729: Grant's Aristotle's "Ethics," vol. i. p. 184.]

"In Physics d??a?? answers to the necessary conditions for the existence of any thing before that thing exists. It thus corresponds to ???, both to the p??t? ???--the first matter, or matter devoid of all qualities, which is capable of becoming any definite substance, as, for example, marble; and also to the ?s??t? ???--or matter capable of receiving form, as marble the form of the statue." Marble then exists potentially in the simple elements before it is marble. The statue exists potentially in the marble before it is carved. All objects of thought exist, either purely in potentiality, or purely in actuality, or both in potentiality and in actuality. This division makes an entire chain of all existence. At the one end is matter, the p??t? ??? which has a merely potential existence, which is necessary as a condition, but which having no form and no qualities, is totally incapable of being realized by the mind. At the other end of the chain is pure form, which is not at all matter, the absolute and the unconditioned, the eternal substance and energy without matter (??s?a ??d??? ?a? ?????e?a ??e?

d???e??), who can not be thought as non-existing--the self-existent G.o.d. Between these two extremes is the whole row of creatures, which out of potentiality evermore spring into actual being.[730]

[Footnote 730: Id., ib., vol. i. p. 185.]

The relation of actuality to potentiality is the subject of an extended and elaborate discussion in book viii., the general results of which may be summed up in the following propositions:

1. _The relation of Actuality to Potentiality is as the Perfect to the Imperfect_.--The progress from potentiality to actuality is motion or production (????s?? or ???es??). But this motion is transitional, and in itself imperfect--it tends towards an end, but does not include the end in itself. But actuality, if it implies motion, has an end in itself and for itself; it is a motion desirable for its own sake.[731] The relation of the potential to the actual Aristotle exhibits by the relation of the unfinished to the finished work, of the unemployed builder to the one at work upon his building, of the seed-corn to the tree, of the man who has the capacity to think, to the man actually engaged in thought.[732]

Potentially the seed-corn is the tree, but the grown-up tree is the actuality; the potential philosopher is he who is not at this moment in a philosophic condition; indeed, every thing is potential which possesses a principle of development, or of change. Actuality or entelechy, on the other hand, indicates the _perfect act_, the end gained, the completed actual; that activity in which the act and the completeness of the act fall together--as, for example, to see, to think, where the acting and the completed act are one and the same.

2. _The Relation of Actuality to Potentiality is a causal Relation_.--A thing which is endued with a simple capacity of being may nevertheless not actually exist, and a thing may have a capacity of being and really exist. Since this is the case, there must ensue between non-being and real being some such principle as _energy_, in order to account for the transition or change.[733] Energy has here some a.n.a.logy to motion, though it must not be confounded with motion. Now you can not predicate either motion or energy of things which are not. The moment energy is added to them they are. This transition from potentiality to actuality must be through the medium of such principles as propension or _free will_, because propension or free will possess in themselves the power of originating motion in other things.[734]

[Footnote 731: "Metaphysics," bk. viii. ch. vi.]

[Footnote 732: Ibid., bk. viii. ch. vi.]

[Footnote 733: Ibid., bk. viii. ch. iii.]

[Footnote 734: Ibid., bk. viii. ch. v.]

3. _The Relation of Actuality and Potentiality is a Relation of Priority_.--Actuality, says Aristotle, is prior to potentiality in the order of reason, in the order of substance, and also (though not invariably) in the order of time. The first of all capacities is a capacity of energizing or a.s.suming a state of activity; for example, a man who has the capacity of building is one who is skilled in building, and thus able to use his energy in the art of building.[735] The primary energizing power must precede that which receives the impression of it, Form being older than Matter. But if you take the case of any particular person or thing, we say that its capacity of being that particular person or thing precedes its being so actually. Yet, though this is the case in each particular thing, there is always a foregone energy presumed in some other thing (as a prior seed, plant, man) to which it owes its existence. One pregnant thought presents itself in the course of the discussion which has a direct bearing upon our subject. [Greek: ???a??] has been previously defined as "a principle of motion or change in another thing in so far forth as it is another thing"[736]--that is, it is fitted by nature to have motion imparted to it, and to communicate motion to something else. But this motion wants a resting-place. There can be no infinite regression of causes. There is some primary [Greek: d??a??] presupposed in all others, which is the beginning of change.

This is [Greek: F?s??], or nature. But the first and original cause of all motion and change still precedes and surpa.s.ses nature. The final cause of all potentiality is energy or _actuality_. The one proposed is prior to the means through which the end is accomplished. A process of actualization, a tendency towards completeness or perfection ([Greek: t????]) presupposes an absolute actuality which is at once its beginning and end. "One energy is invariably antecedent to another in time, up to that which is primarily and eternally the Moving Cause."[737]

[Footnote 735: "Metaphysics," bk. viii. ch. viii.]

[Footnote 736: Ibid., bk. iv. ch. xii.]

[Footnote 737: Ibid., bk. viii. ch. viii.]

And now having laid down these fundamental principles of metaphysical science, as preparatory to Theology, Aristotle proceeds to establish the conception of the Absolute or Divine Spirit _as the eternal, immutable Substance, the immaterial Energy, the unchangeable Form of Forms, the first moving Cause_.

I. _The Ontological Form of Proof_.--It is necessary to conceive an eternal and immutable substance--an actuality which is absolute and prior, both logically and chronologically, to all potentiality; for that which is potential is simply contingent, it may just as easily not be as be; that which exists only in capacity is temporal and corruptible, and may cease to be. Matter we know subsists merely in capacity and pa.s.sivity, and without the operation of Energy,(?????e?a), or the formative cause, would be to us as non-ent.i.ty. The phenomena of the world exhibits to us the presence of Energy, and energy presupposes the existence of an eternal substance. Furthermore, matter and potentiality are convertible terms, therefore the primal Energy or Actuality must be _immaterial_.[738]

2. _The Cosmological Form of Proof_.--It is impossible that there should be _motion_, genesis, or a chain of causes, except on the a.s.sumption of a first Moving Cause, since that which exists only in capacity can not, of itself energize, and consequently without a principle of motion which is essentially active, we have only a principle of immobility. The principle "ex nihilo nihil" forbids us to a.s.sume that motion can arise out of immobility, being out of non-being. "How can matter be put in motion if nothing that subsists in energy exist, and is its cause?" All becoming, therefore, necessarily supposes that which has not become, that which is eternally self-active as the principle and cause of all motion. There is no refuge from the notion that all things are "born of night and nothingness" except in this belief.[739]

[Footnote 738: "Metaphysics," bk. xi. ch. vi.]

[Footnote 739: Ibid., bk. xi. ch. vii., viii.]

The existence of an eternal principle subsisting in energy is also demanded to explain the _order_ of the world. "For how, let me ask, will there prevail _order_ on the supposition that there is no subsistence of that which is eternal, and which involves a separable existence, and is permanent."[740] "All things in nature are const.i.tuted in the best possible manner."[741] All things strive after "the good." "The appearance of ends and means in nature is a proof of design."[742] Now an end or final cause presupposes intelligence,--implies a _mind_ to see and desire it. That which is "fair," "beautiful," "good," an "object of desire," can only be perceived by Mind. The "final cause" must therefore subsist in that which is prior and immovable and eternal; and _Mind_ is "that substance which subsists absolutely, and according to energy."[743] "The First Mover of all things, moves all things without being moved, being an eternal substance and energy; and he moves all things as the object of reason and of desire, or love."[744]

[Footnote 740: Ibid., bk. x. ch. ii.]

[Footnote 741: "Ethics," bk. i. ch. ix.]

[Footnote 742: "Nat. Ausc.," bk. ii. ch. viii.]

[Footnote 743: "Metaphysics," bk. xi. ch. vii.]

[Footnote 744: Ibid.]

3. _The Moral Form of Proof_.--So far as the relation of potentiality and actuality is identical with the relation of matter and form, the argument for the existence of G.o.d may be thus presented: The conception of an absolute matter without form, involves the supposition of an absolute form without matter. And since the conception of form resolves itself into _motion_, _conception_, _purpose_ or _end_, so the Eternal One is the absolute principle of motion (the p??t?? ??????), the absolute conception or pure intelligence (the pure t? ?? e??a?), and the absolute ground, reason, or end of all being. All the other predicates of the First Cause follow from the above principles with logical necessity.

(i.) _He is, of course, pure intellect_, because he is absolutely immaterial and free from nature. He is active intelligence, because his essence is pure actuality. He is self-contemplating and self-conscious intelligence, because the divine thought can not attain its actuality in any thing extrinsic; it would depend on something else than self--some potential existence for its actualization. Hence the famous definition of the absolute as "the thought of thought" (???s?? ???se??).[745] "And therefore the first and actual perception by mind of Mind itself, doth subsist in this way throughout all eternity."[746]

[Footnote 745: Schwegler's "History of Philosophy," p. 125.]

[Footnote 746: "Metaphysics," bk. xi. ch. ix.]

(ii.) _He is also essential life_. "The principle of life is inherent in the Deity, for the energy or active exercise of mind const.i.tutes life, and G.o.d const.i.tutes this energy; and essential energy belongs to G.o.d as his best and everlasting life. Now our statement is this--that the Deity is a living being that is everlasting and most excellent in nature, so that with the Deity life and duration are uninterrupted and eternal; for this const.i.tutes the essence of G.o.d."[747]

(iii.) _Unity belongs to him_, since multiplicity implies matter; and the highest idea or form of the world must be absolutely immaterial.[748] The Divine nature is "devoid of parts and indivisible, for magnitude can not in any way involve this Divine nature; for G.o.d imparts motion through infinite duration, and nothing finite--as magnitude is--can be possessed of an infinite capacity."[749]

(iv.) _He is immovable and ever abideth the same_; since otherwise he could not be the absolute mover, and the cause of all becoming, if he were subject to change.[750] G.o.d is impa.s.sive and unalterable ([Greek: ?pa??? ?a? ??a?????t??]); for all such notions as are involved in pa.s.sion or alteration are outside the sphere of the Divine existence.[751]

[Footnote 747: "Metaphysics," bk. xi. ch. vii.]

[Footnote 748: Ibid.]

[Footnote 749: Ibid.]

[Footnote 750: Ibid., bk. xi. ch. viii.]

[Footnote 751: Ibid., bk. xi. ch. vii.]

(v.) _He is the ever-blessed G.o.d_.--"The life of G.o.d is of a kind with those highest moods which, with us, last a brief s.p.a.ce, it being impossible they should be permanent; whereas, with Him they are permanent, since His ever-present consciousness is pleasure itself. And it is because they are vivid states of consciousness, that waking, and perception, and thought, are the sweetest of all things. Now essential perception is the perception of that which is most excellent,... and the mind perceives itself by partic.i.p.ating of its own object of perception; but it is a sort of coalescence of both that, in the Divine Mind, creates a regular ident.i.ty between the two, so that with G.o.d both (the thinker and the thought, the subject and object) are the same. In possession of this prerogative, He subsists in the exercise of energy; and the contemplation of his own perfections is what, to G.o.d, must be most agreeable and excellent. This condition of existence, after so excellent a manner, is what is "so astonishing to us when we examine G.o.d's nature, and the more we do so the more wonderful that nature appears to us. The mood of the Divine existence is essential energy, and, as such, it is a life that is most excellent, blessed, and everlasting.[752]

[Footnote 752: "Metaphysics," bk. xi. ch. vii.]

The theology of Aristotle may be summed up in the following sentences selected from book xi. of his "Metaphysics:"

"This motionless cause of motion is a necessary being; and, by virtue of such necessity, is the all-perfect being. This all-pervading principle penetrates heaven and all nature. It eternally possesses perfect happiness; and its happiness is in action. This primal mover is immaterial; for its essence is in energy. It is pure thought--thought thinking itself--the thought of thought. The activity of pure intelligence--such is the perfect, eternal life of G.o.d. This primal cause of change, this absolute perfection, moves the world by the universal desire for the absolute good, by the attraction exercised upon it by the Eternal Mind--the serene energy of Divine Intelligence."

It can not be denied that, so far as it goes, this conception of the Deity is admirable, worthy, and just. Viewed from a Christian stand-point, we at once concede that it is essentially defective. There is no clear and distinct recognition of G.o.d as Creator and Governor of the universe; he is chiefly regarded as the Life of the universe--the Intellect, the Energy--that which gives excellence, and perfection, and gladness to the whole system of things. The Theology of Aristotle is, in fact, metaphysical rather than practical. He does not contemplate the Deity as a moral Governor. Whilst Plato speaks of "being made like G.o.d through becoming just and holy," Aristotle a.s.serts that "all moral virtues are totally unworthy of being ascribed to G.o.d."[753] He is not the G.o.d of providence. He dwells alone, supremely indifferent to human cares, and interests, and sorrows. He takes no cognizance of individual men, and holds no intercourse with man. The G.o.d of Aristotle is not a being that meets and satisfies the wants of the human heart, however well it may meet the demands of the reason.

[Footnote 753: "Ethics," bk. x. ch. viii.]

Morality has no basis in the Divine nature, no eternal type in the perfections and government of G.o.d, and no supports and aids from above.

The theology of Aristotle foreshadows the character of the