Carrier_ A Guided Tour Of An Aircraft Carrier Part 6

NNS nevertheless remains the only American shipyard capable of building nuclear-powered surface warships. If future carriers or any of their escorts are to be nuclear-powered, then NNS will build them. Since at least one more Nimitz Nimitz-cla.s.s carrier is planned (the as-yet-unnamed CVN-77), the yard will stay fat in flattop construction for another decade. Meanwhile, Congress has guaranteed NNS a share of the NSSN production with Electric Boat, allowing the company to utilize its investment in submarine construction facilities built for the Seawolf Seawolf program years ago. There has also been a steady flow of Navy and commercial refit and modernization work, and this is proving to be highly lucrative. In fact, NNS is preparing for one of the biggest refits ever, when USS program years ago. There has also been a steady flow of Navy and commercial refit and modernization work, and this is proving to be highly lucrative. In fact, NNS is preparing for one of the biggest refits ever, when USS Nimitz Nimitz (CVN-68) comes back into the yard for its first nuclear refueling. (CVN-68) comes back into the yard for its first nuclear refueling.

Building the Boat Before we actually go on board a Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s carrier, let's take a look at how the ship is built. A Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s CVN is among the largest man-made moving structures. And with a price tag around $4.2 billion, it is also among the most expensive. Only the biggest commercial supertankers are larger. Such vessels are mostly hollow s.p.a.ce, and they aren't built to take anything like the punishment a warship must be able to absorb. On top of that, carriers must hold six thousand personnel and operate over ninety aircraft. And finally, no supertanker has a power plant of such impressive capability as the nuclear power plants on Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s-or one that requires such obsessive care. Every component of the nuclear power plant comes under the meticulous scrutiny of the Office of Naval Reactors. Very early in the history of U.S. Navy nuclear propulsion, it was realized that the first nuclear accident would mean the end of the program. Therefore, rigid inspection standards and elaborate safeguards were applied to every step of design, construction, and testing. For example, every welded pipe joint (there are thousands of them!) is X-rayed, to ensure that it has no flaws, cracks, or voids.

Strange as it may sound, building a 95,000-ton aircraft carrier is a precision operation, which requires immensely detailed planning. For example, the maximum draft of a ship being built at NNS is limited both by the size of Dry Dock 12 and by local tidal conditions. Even at an unusually high tide, Dry Dock 12 can be flooded only to a depth of about thirty-three feet/ten meters, meaning that construction of a carrier can be taken only so far before it must emerge out of the dock into the James River. Once that's done, the hull is moored to a dock on the eastern end of the yard for final construction and outfitting. Because of the quick-moving tidal conditions near the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, the launching is normally timed to the minute, and there are never more than a few inches to spare.

A Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s CVN gets its start in Washington, D.C., about a decade before its launching, when admirals at the headquarters of the Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA, formerly known as the Bureau of Ships, the agency that manages ship construction) fix the retirement date of an aging carrier. This determines the time line for budgeting a new flattop. The time line, almost a decade long, starts at the point when money begins to be committed to the building of the new ship. Soon after that, contracts are signed for "long-lead items"-those components that can take years to order, design, manufacture, and deliver. These include nuclear reactors, turbines, shafts, elevators, and other key items that must be installed early in the construction of the ship.

Budgeting must also take into account changes and new items that go into each new carrier, for each has literally thousands of changes and improvements over earlier ships of the cla.s.s. To lower the drag of the hull, the most recent Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s carriers have bulbous bow extensions below the waterline. Lowering the hull drag extends the life of the reactor cores and allows power to be diverted from propulsion to the "hotel" systems like air-conditioning and freshwater production. Most design changes are not so significant, and usually involve nothing more than a material or component change, like a new kind of steam valve, electrical switch, or hydraulic pump. Even so, every change involves written change orders, as well as stacks of engineering drawings. Back in the 1960's and 1970's, a small army of draftsmen, engineers, and accountants was required to produce the mountain of paper doc.u.menting the changes on a new carrier. Today, a much smaller force manages a computerized drawing and change-management system custom-programmed for NNS. In fact, in the interest of efficiency and compet.i.tiveness, the entire NNS operation has become heavily computerized.

A prime example of computerization is the ordering-and-materials-control system. NNS cannot afford a huge inventory of steel plate and other materials sitting around rusting in the humid Tidewater climate. There is only limited s.p.a.ce for storage and construction, and every bit must stay busy for NNS to turn a profit. To minimize this potential waste, NNS has installed a computerized "just-in-time" ordering-and-materials-control system. The many components and raw materials (steel plate, coatings, etc.) that go into a Nimitz Nimitz-cla.s.s carrier arrive exactly when they are needed. No earlier, and no later. In this way NNS's investment capital is not needlessly tied up, and the final cost to taxpayers is reduced by millions of dollars. The NNS work-force has also become more efficient, since fewer items need to be stored, protected, hauled from place to place, and inventoried.

The actual start of construction begins some months prior to the official date of the ceremonial keel-laying. At that time, the Dry Dock 12 cofferdam is placed so that about 1,100 feet/335.3 meters of room are opened at the rear of the dock. This leaves 900 feet/274.3 meters at the river-gate end of the dock for construction of tankers or other projects. NNS workers then begin to lay out the wooden and concrete structural blocks that the carrier will be built upon. Building a ship that displaces over 95,000 tons/86,100 metric tons on wood and concrete blocks may sound like building a skysc.r.a.per on a foundation of paper, but NNS uses lots lots of these blocks to spread the load around. This very old technique is also used when ships are brought into dry dock for deep maintenance. Some things just work, and cannot be improved upon. of these blocks to spread the load around. This very old technique is also used when ships are brought into dry dock for deep maintenance. Some things just work, and cannot be improved upon.

The close tolerances in the construction of a Nimitz Nimitz-cla.s.s carrier demand absolute precision from the start. Exact placement of the first keel blocks is critical, as they represent the three-dimensional "zero" points upon which everything else is built. This preliminary work goes on for four to six months, until the keel-laying ceremony draws near. At the same time, some initial a.s.semblies are welded together and stored on the floor of the dry dock, since storage s.p.a.ce in the main construction yard is tight. At the ceremonial laying of the keel on a Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s vessel, the guests include the Secretary of the Navy, the Chief of Naval Operations, and hundreds of other dignitaries. By tradition, the ship's "sponsor" (a sort of nautical G.o.dmother) is appointed-usually the wife of a high-ranking Administration official or politician whose favor is being sought by the Navy. Then a ceremonial weld is made in the first "keel" member (a steel box girder built up along the centerline of the lowest part of the hull), and the carrier's construction is officially under way.

Now a thirty-three-month countdown clock starts. From this day forward to the launch date, the construction process is a race to determine the milestone bonuses and resulting profits for NNS stockholders. Meanwhile, Navy officials plan dates for commissioning and first deployments, select the "plankowner" officers and crew who will first man the new carrier, and a.s.semble the "pre-commissioning unit" (PCU). These are the sailors who will report on board the ship while it is still under construction, in order to learn every detail of maintenance and operation.

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Automated flame-cutting of steel plates at NNS.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

Back at Dry Dock 12, the thirty-three-month construction moves forward rapidly. The secret to staying on schedule is "modular construction," a technique originally pioneered by Litton-Ingalls Shipbuilding in Mississippi. Rather than constructing a ship like a building, from the bottom up, the ship's designers break the design down into a series of modules. Each module is completed alongside the construction dock, with piping, fixtures, and heavy equipment already installed. Then it is lifted into place and "stacked" with other modules to form the hull. When that is done, the modules are "joined" (welded together). Pipes, ducts, and electric wiring bundles are connected into a mostly finished configuration, and the ship is "floated" out of the dock (or launched), with final work done alongside a "fitting-out" dock elsewhere in the yard. This mode of construction has many advantages. For one thing, the ship can be launched at a more advanced stage of construction than used to be the custom, which reduces costs considerably. Work that takes an hour to do in an NNS workshop usually takes three hours out in the yard, or eight hours in the ship once it is floating in the water. So anything that can be built in the shops or installed in the yard before it is a.s.sembled reduces costs; it is money in the bank.

Though modular military shipbuilding was pioneered by Litton-Ingalls, the scale at NNS is far greater. At NNS, they call this the "Superlift" concept. By way of comparison, Litton's largest module weighs around 500 tons/ 453.6 metric tons, while NNS utilizes modules up to 900 tons/816.6 metric tons lugged in place by the huge bridge crane. NNS can build a Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s carrier with about a hundred "Superlift" modules. Two dozen "Superlifts" make up a Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s carrier's flight deck, while the bow bulb and island structure are individual Superlifts.

A Superlift starts as a small mountain of steel plates, brought by rail and truck to NNS. Flame-cut to exact tolerances in the shops just south of Dry Dock 12, the plates are tack welded together by spot welds, then permanently joined by robotic welders along a pair of side-by-side production lines. These are then linked into the structural a.s.semblies that form each Superlift. Once the basic structure is completed, cranes move it to the large a.s.sembly area next to Dry Dock 12. Then NNS yard workers crawl over and inside it to "stuff" electrical, steam, fuel, sewage, and other lines, fittings, and gear into place. Sometimes Superlifts are turned upside down, to make "stuffing" easier. When a Superlift is ready for joining, the nine-hundred-ton bridge crane is moved into position overhead, the lift cables are fastened, and the a.s.sembly in Dry Dock 12 made ready. Despite a Superlift's gigantic size and weight, this is a precision operation, with tolerances frequently dictated by the relative temperatures of the ship a.s.sembly and the Superlift. Depending on temperature, the metal structure of a Superlift can easily expand or contract over an inch during a given day on the Tidewater.

Around the a.s.sembly yard, several dozen Superlifts are in various stages of preparation at any given time. Some interior and exterior painting is done on Superlifts, to make this nasty and environmentally sensitive job a little safer. Because power, water, and air-conditioning can be installed in a Superlift while it is being a.s.sembled, the construction process is considerably facilitated. This is particularly helpful in the hot, muggy summers and cold, wet winters of the Tidewater region. There is a particular order to how Superlifts are stacked. The initial Superlifts-including the double bottom, reactors, steam power plants, ammunition magazines, and heavy machinery-are laid around the keel structure. In general, these items (making up the bottom of the middle third of the carrier) are the heaviest and most deeply buried components, and cannot be accessed or installed easily later on. They take some four months to a.s.semble.

At twenty-two months to launch, everything aft to the fantail and up to the main/hangar deck is in place. Many of the living and habitation s.p.a.ces are also included in this phase, as well as the majority of the carrier's protection systems (double bottoms, heavy plating, and voids-hollow s.p.a.ces like fuel tanks, etc.). Now the a.s.sembly is beginning to look like a ship. At eighteen months to launch, the hangar deck is taking shape, along with the great overhanging "sponson" structures that extend out to port and starboard. a.s.sembly of the bow is beginning. The flag (admiral's staff) and air wing s.p.a.ces are fitted out, as well the offices for the various ship's departments. By fourteen months to launch, the hangar deck, sponson, and bow structures are in place, and the first parts of the flight deck are filling in amidships. After four more months, the hangar and flight decks are almost finished. Meanwhile, the lower bow has been completed, as well as the entire fantail structure. At two months before launch, the entire island structure-an eight-story building-is lifted onto the deck of the ship. This final Superlift represents the completion of major construction.

While the NNS yard workers seal up the hull and make it watertight, the managers and planners get ready for the actual launching of the ship. The launching ceremony is similar in many ways to the keel-laying just over two-and-a-half years earlier. Again, the Secretary of the Navy and the Chief of Naval Operations are present, as is the carrier's sponsor. She gets to break the traditional bottle of champagne over the new carrier's bow. A hint, though: Scratch the bottle first with a diamond-tipped scribe to ensure a clean break. Long-winded speeches, prayers, and benedictions complete the launching ritual. Then things get deadly serious and precise.

Since Dry Dock 12 is not deep enough to float off a finished Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s carrier, as soon as the hull structure is complete, it must be quickly floated out of the dock. Then the uncompleted carrier can be moved to a deeper part of the James River channel, where it can be moored to a fitting-out wharf for completion. The depth of the dock and the tidal conditions of the Tidewater region allow very little margin for error-meaning that the launching of a carrier is synchronized with the highest tide in a given month, to provide maximum clearance over the end of the dry-dock gate.

Before this can begin, any other ships in Dry Dock 12 are floated out and the movable cofferdam is removed. Then the dock is carefully flooded, with hundreds of NNS and Navy personnel monitoring tidal conditions and the watertight integrity of the carrier. When the dock is fully flooded and the ship has lifted off the keel blocks, the gate is opened. Now things happen fast. As a small tugboat pulls the carrier out of the dry dock, other tugboats wait just outside in the river to take control of the ma.s.sive hulk. When the carrier is finally clear of the gate and safely into the deep channel of the river, it is turned and towed downstream to the fitting-out wharf on the southern end of the NNS property. Here it will be moored until it is turned over to the Navy, approximately two years later.

While it is an impressive sight sitting at the fitting-out dock, the ma.s.s of metal floating there is hardly a ship of war. It is still, in naval terminology, just a "hulk." Making it into a habitable vessel is the job of almost 2,600 NNS yard workers-everything from nuclear-reactor engineers to diesel-engine mechanics, computer specialists to roughneck welders. Building a modern warship takes almost every technology and tradecraft known. Imagine a skysc.r.a.per with offices, restaurants, workshops, stores, and apartments that can steam at more than thirty knots, with a four-and-a-half-acre airfield on the roof. That is a fair description of a Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s aircraft carrier.

During a visit to NNS in the fall of 1997, I spent some time aboard the USS Harry S. Truman Harry S. Truman (CVN-75) while she was about nine months from commissioning and delivery. I'd like to share with you some of my experiences there. My first stop, after NNS and Navy officials led me aboard, was the ma.s.sive hangar deck. At 684 feet/208.5 meters long, 108 feet/33 meters wide, and 25 feet/7.6 meters tall, it is designed to provide a dry, safe place to store and maintain the aircraft of the embarked wing. As we walked forward, I pa.s.sed several large access holes that led into the two nuclear reactor compartments below. These would be b.u.t.toned up shortly, my guides told me. The nuclear fuel packages would then be installed, followed by testing and certification of the twin A4W reactor plants. All around the hangar deck, workers were busy welding and installing pieces of equipment. (CVN-75) while she was about nine months from commissioning and delivery. I'd like to share with you some of my experiences there. My first stop, after NNS and Navy officials led me aboard, was the ma.s.sive hangar deck. At 684 feet/208.5 meters long, 108 feet/33 meters wide, and 25 feet/7.6 meters tall, it is designed to provide a dry, safe place to store and maintain the aircraft of the embarked wing. As we walked forward, I pa.s.sed several large access holes that led into the two nuclear reactor compartments below. These would be b.u.t.toned up shortly, my guides told me. The nuclear fuel packages would then be installed, followed by testing and certification of the twin A4W reactor plants. All around the hangar deck, workers were busy welding and installing pieces of equipment.

Catapult-testing deadweights aboard the Harry Truman Harry Truman (CVN-75). (CVN-75).

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

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The hulk of the USS Harry S. Truman Harry S. Truman (CVN-75) at the NNS fitting-out wharf in the fall of 1997. By mid-1998, the (CVN-75) at the NNS fitting-out wharf in the fall of 1997. By mid-1998, the Truman Truman was conducting sea trials off the Atlantic Coast. was conducting sea trials off the Atlantic Coast.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

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After climbing several ladders, we emerged on the flight deck, where hundreds more NNS workers were hustling about at their tasks, and then moved forward to the catapults, which were in the process of testing and certification. They are installed in pairs on the bow and the deck angle port-side, and each of the four 302-foot/92.1-meter-long C13 Mod. 1 catapults is capable of launching an aircraft every few minutes (the cycle time depends largely on the skill of the deck crew). Each catapult is powered by a pair of steam cylinders, which are built into the flight deck, and normally use high-pressure saturated steam from the reactor plant; but since the reactors were not yet powered up, Truman Truman drew her power, water, and steam from plants dockside. drew her power, water, and steam from plants dockside.

Testing such powerful machines is a dramatic procedure. Scattered around the deck were a number of orange-painted, water-filled, wheeled trolleys called deadweights. Each deadweight simulates a fully loaded aircraft, with attachment points that allow it to be hitched to the shuttle of a catapult. After the bow has been pointed into the James River channel, and the Coast Guard and local boaters have been suitably warned, each catapult fires the entire range of deadweights. The tests are noisy and the sight of the weights flying hundreds of yards/meters into the channel is bizarre. Nevertheless, this is a highly effective way to prove that the machinery is ready. After leaving the catapults, we headed aft to inspect the catapult control station between Catapults 1 and 2.35 Set on a hydraulically raised platform under an armored steel door, the control station is a pod where the catapult officer-or "shooter"-can control the catapults in safety and comfort. Another identical station is located on the port side, controlling Catapults 3 and 4. Set on a hydraulically raised platform under an armored steel door, the control station is a pod where the catapult officer-or "shooter"-can control the catapults in safety and comfort. Another identical station is located on the port side, controlling Catapults 3 and 4.

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The island structure of the Harry S. Truman Harry S. Truman (CVN-75) being finished at NNS. (CVN-75) being finished at NNS.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

Next we walked over to the island structure, where our guides showed us how the many systems on the flag and navigation bridges, the primary flight control, and the meteorology office were installed. Although the basic Nimitz Nimitz design is over thirty years old, the many changes bringing it into the 21st century are quite visible. Up on the design is over thirty years old, the many changes bringing it into the 21st century are quite visible. Up on the Truman's Truman's navigation bridge, for example, are many of the "Smart Ship" systems (mentioned in the second chapter) that make it possible for three people to steer the ship from auto-matedcontrol stations (before, almost two dozen people were required to do the same job). Similar systems will be scattered throughout the navigation bridge, for example, are many of the "Smart Ship" systems (mentioned in the second chapter) that make it possible for three people to steer the ship from auto-matedcontrol stations (before, almost two dozen people were required to do the same job). Similar systems will be scattered throughout the Truman, Truman, and will be tested when she goes to sea in 1998. and will be tested when she goes to sea in 1998.

The cluttered flight deck of the Harry S. Truman Harry S. Truman (CVN-75) while being fitted out at NNS. (CVN-75) while being fitted out at NNS.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

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As we moved farther aft, we pa.s.sed by the kinds of tool sheds and other temporary storage buildings that you find at any construction site. Then we dropped down a ladder back to the hangar deck and down another into the bowels of the ship. At this point, the primary work on Truman Truman involved preparing some eight hundred (out of a total 2,700) compartments for turnover to the Navy. Those compartments contain crew berthing, medical facilities, galley and mess areas, office s.p.a.ces, the ship's store, the post office, and storage rooms. Everything needed to finish these s.p.a.ces must be carried up and down ladders and through narrow pa.s.sageways by hand. Sprained knees and ankles are the price paid to haul paint cans, power cables, and tools into the ship. involved preparing some eight hundred (out of a total 2,700) compartments for turnover to the Navy. Those compartments contain crew berthing, medical facilities, galley and mess areas, office s.p.a.ces, the ship's store, the post office, and storage rooms. Everything needed to finish these s.p.a.ces must be carried up and down ladders and through narrow pa.s.sageways by hand. Sprained knees and ankles are the price paid to haul paint cans, power cables, and tools into the ship.

Shortly after this job was completed, just after New Year's of 1998, the first of the Navy's crew of "plankowners" arrived. Several of the ship's s.p.a.ces that had already been turned over proved to be spotless when we visited them; and the quality and workmanship are very impressive. In particular, the communications s.p.a.ces, which were just being brought to life by a Navy crew, had the look and smell of a new automobile. As the final stop on my visit, I was allowed to visit the magazines and the pump room in the very bottom of the ship.

It was close to quitting time when we made our way back to the hangar deck, aft to the fantail, and down the access ramps to the dock. As we sat waiting for our tired leg muscles to loosen, the shift alarm went off, and we watched 2,600 NNS workers come off shift and head for home-an impressive sight. As they pa.s.sed by us on the dock, I was reminded of the builders of the Egyptian pharaoh's pyramids. Both groups labored to build a wonder of the world. Unlike the pharaoh's slaves who hauled and stacked the stones in the desert, these people have chosen have chosen to labor at their "wonder of the world." They to labor at their "wonder of the world." They want want these jobs, take pride in what they do, and make good livings. For those who think that Americans don't build anything worthwhile these days, I say go down to NNS and watch these great men and women build metal mountains that float, move, and fly airplanes off the top. It truly is the "NNS" miracle. these jobs, take pride in what they do, and make good livings. For those who think that Americans don't build anything worthwhile these days, I say go down to NNS and watch these great men and women build metal mountains that float, move, and fly airplanes off the top. It truly is the "NNS" miracle.

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The "NNS Miracle": Some of the 2,600 Newport News Shipbuilding workers leave the Harry S. Truman Harry S. Truman (CVN-75) at the end of an afternoon shift. (CVN-75) at the end of an afternoon shift.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

When the initial crew cadre came aboard Truman in early 1998, they began to help the NNS yard workers bring the ship's various systems to life. This process (ongoing until the ship is handed over to the Navy) is designed to make her ready for her "final exams," when the carrier will become truly seaworthy, with her reactors powered up and most of her "plankowner" crew aboard. Combat systems tests occur when the ship is about 98% complete, with evaluations of the radar and radio electronics, defensive weapons, and all the vast network of internal communications and alarms. After these tests, it is time for sea trials off the Virginia capes, including speed runs to evaluate the power plant. After these trials are completed, the Navy conducts one last series of inspections prior to the most important ceremony of the entire building process (at least for NNS). This is the signing of the Federal Form DD-250, which indicates that the Navy has taken possession of the vessel and NNS can now be paid!

The next six to eight months are filled with training and readiness exercises, including the traditional "shakedown" cruise. Following this is a short period of yard maintenance (known as "Post Shakedown Availability") to fix any problems that have cropped up. The new carrier will then spend much of her time over at the Norfolk Naval Station, moored to one of the long carrier docks, where she will get ready for commissioning. At the commissioning ceremony, the high officials, the dignitaries, and the ship's sponsor once again gather. Again there are speeches and presentations. And almost a decade after the decision was made to build this mighty warship, a signal is given, the commissioning pennant is raised, the crew rushes aboard to man the sides, and she is finally a warship in the U.S. Navy.

The Nimitz Nimitz Cla.s.s: A Guided Tour Cla.s.s: A Guided Tour Let's now take a short walking tour of a Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s carrier. We'll start the way most guests come aboard, at the officers' accommodation brow on the starboard side just under the island. One of the first things you notice is the thickness of the hull, which is composed of high-strength steel several inches thick. It is that thick to protect against battle damage and fires. The same material makes up the flight and hangar decks, providing them with a similar resistance to damage and fires. Everywhere, there are redundant water and firefighting mains, with damage control stations in every pa.s.sageway. The Navy is deadly serious about firefighting, and there even is a water deluge system, which can flood the deck, or wash it down in the event of a nuclear or chemical attack.

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A front cutaway view of an improved Nimitz Nimitz-cla.s.s (CVN-68) nuclear-powered aircraft carrier.

JACK RYAN ENTERPRISES, LTD., BY LAURA DENINNO.

Past the entryway hatch, you take the first of many tall steps over structural members the crew calls "knee knockers." Though they are a constant nuisance to movement throughout the ship, these steel thresholds provide structural strength to the entire vessel. A Nimitz Nimitz has miles of virtually indistinguishable pa.s.sageways. And there are dozens of places in them where just standing around watching can be hazardous-due to noise, fumes, moving machinery, or simply wet, slippery decks. These pa.s.sageways are considerably narrower than those in other combat vessels, particularly amphibious ships which have room for combat-loaded Marines to move around. Despite their huge size, carriers are volume-limited, and s.p.a.ce for people to live, work, and walk takes away capacity for fuel, bombs, and fighting power. So getting around with any sort of load can be a genuine ch.o.r.e. You often see "bucket brigades" of sailors moving loads of food and other supplies from one place to another. has miles of virtually indistinguishable pa.s.sageways. And there are dozens of places in them where just standing around watching can be hazardous-due to noise, fumes, moving machinery, or simply wet, slippery decks. These pa.s.sageways are considerably narrower than those in other combat vessels, particularly amphibious ships which have room for combat-loaded Marines to move around. Despite their huge size, carriers are volume-limited, and s.p.a.ce for people to live, work, and walk takes away capacity for fuel, bombs, and fighting power. So getting around with any sort of load can be a genuine ch.o.r.e. You often see "bucket brigades" of sailors moving loads of food and other supplies from one place to another.

The narrow corridors are one important reason for the Navy's constant emphasis on simple courtesy. A senior officer or chief headed in the opposite direction always gets a respectful greeting and the right of way in these narrow pa.s.sages. I learned a valuable lesson sometime ago from a civilian a.n.a.lyst who had spent many years on board Navy ships: "If you're standing anywhere and you're not touching metal, you're probably in somebody's way."

Moving inboard through several hatches, you emerge into the vast hangar deck; 684 feet/208.5 meters long, 108 feet/33 meters wide, and 25 feet/ 7.6 meters tall-about two-thirds the total length of the ship. Three immense sets of power-driven sliding armored doors divide the hangar bay into zones, to limit the spread of a fire or damage from explosions. In good weather, daylight floods in from four huge oval openings in the sidewalls where the elevators are located. In bad weather sliding barriers seal off the elevator openings to keep the interiors safe and dry. The elevators themselves are the largest aluminum structures on the ship (to save weight). Each of these mammoth lifts (one on each side aft, with two others forward on the starboard side) can raise two fully loaded F-14 Tomcats (the heaviest carrier aircraft) to the flight deck at one time. This is one of the few places on the ship where you can actually see the sea and sky, and remind yourself of the outside world. The flight deck, by contrast, is a highly restricted area. Since there are no portholes, most of the crew rarely sees the light of day. You often find crew members who go days and weeks at a time without either a breath of fresh air or a view of the outside world.

The hangar deck is one of the three main horizontal structures on a carrier (the flight deck and keel/double bottom are the other two), and it provides much of the stiffness and protection for the rest of the ship. Any damage from hits on a carrier should be contained outside the armored boxes that surround the hangar deck and engineering/living s.p.a.ces below. When it's empty, you would have room to play two games of American football in the hanger bay. But when it's filled with fifty or sixty aircraft only inches apart, there is barely room to worm your way through the ma.s.s of landing gear, pylons, and maintenance equipment. The hangar deck is always packed with airplanes and equipment, though there is not enough room to strike down all of the air wing's birds at one time. This means that some of the birds must always be parked on the flight deck. Fortunately, Naval aircraft are designed to withstand the corrosive effects of salt water, and can take the punishment fairly well.

Just aft of the elevator bay is a large stowage area where the ship's boats are stacked, along with bulky items like forklifts, spare arresting cable reels, and spare engines. Moving aft from this holding area, you find the engine and maintenance shops, which completely fill the stern of the ship. Here the ship's Aircraft Intermediate Maintenance Division (AIMD) repairs, overhauls, and tests engines, hydraulic pumps, electronics boxes, and countless other mechanical components that keep planes flyable and combat-ready. The maintenance shops are divided up into small s.p.a.ces where work is done that normally takes acres of workshops and hangars back ash.o.r.e.

Farther aft of the AIMD shops, you again break out into daylight on the stern, or fantail, of the ship, an open area the full width of the hull, roofed by the flight deck, with projecting platforms and catwalks on either side. Mounted on the fantail are ma.s.sive test stands, where aircraft engines can be strapped down and run at full power. Because no bit of open s.p.a.ce goes to waste on a carrier, you'll only rarely find a time when you can just stand back here and watch the ocean go by. This is especially true during flight operations. If an aircraft should hit the stern (in what aviators dryly call a "ramp strike"), the fantail is going to be showered with flaming jet fuel and debris. Such accidents are very rare, but they do do happen, which means that unless you work there, you aren't permitted on the fantail. So if you get to see this spot while under way, count yourself lucky. happen, which means that unless you work there, you aren't permitted on the fantail. So if you get to see this spot while under way, count yourself lucky.

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The hangar bay of the USS George Washington George Washington (CVN-73), a (CVN-73), a Nimitz Nimitz-cla.s.s (CVN-68) carrier.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

Here also are one of the four (three on the Nimitz Nimitz (CVN-68), (CVN-68), Dwight D. Eisenhower Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN-69), and (CVN-69), and Carl Vinson Carl Vinson (CVN-70)) Mk. 15 Phalanx Close-In Weapons Systems (CIWS). A pedestal-mounted 20mm Gatling gun with its own tracking radar, the Mk. 15 is designed to knock down incoming missiles and aircraft. Phalanx has now been in service for almost twenty years, and is considered marginal against the latest threat systems (like the sea-skimming, Mach 2 Russian Kh-41/SS-N-22 Sunburn missile). The Mk. 15's will eventually be replaced by twenty-one-round launchers for the Rolling Airframe Missile (RIM-116A RAM). RAM is based on the cla.s.sic AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile, with a modified seeker from a Stinger (FIM-92) man- portable SAM. RAM-much more capable than the Mk. 15-can actually destroy an incoming Mach 2 missile before it hits (or showers the ship with supersonic fragments). (CVN-70)) Mk. 15 Phalanx Close-In Weapons Systems (CIWS). A pedestal-mounted 20mm Gatling gun with its own tracking radar, the Mk. 15 is designed to knock down incoming missiles and aircraft. Phalanx has now been in service for almost twenty years, and is considered marginal against the latest threat systems (like the sea-skimming, Mach 2 Russian Kh-41/SS-N-22 Sunburn missile). The Mk. 15's will eventually be replaced by twenty-one-round launchers for the Rolling Airframe Missile (RIM-116A RAM). RAM is based on the cla.s.sic AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile, with a modified seeker from a Stinger (FIM-92) man- portable SAM. RAM-much more capable than the Mk. 15-can actually destroy an incoming Mach 2 missile before it hits (or showers the ship with supersonic fragments).

Located below the Phalanx mount are the twin ports for the ships SLQ-25A "Nixie" torpedo countermeasures system. Nixie is a towed noisemaker streamed behind the ship when there is a threat of incoming torpedoes. The idea is that the "fish" will chase the towed decoy, and detonate against it instead of the ship. Since each decoy can be used only once, two Nixie decoys are kept at the ready, each at the end of a spooled tether in the stern. Finally, on a platform at the stem next to the Mk. 15 stands the instrument landing system. This is a stabilized "T"-shaped bar of vertical and horizontal lights, which helps a pilot on final approach judge the roll and motion of the ship.

Heading back forward into the hangar bay, you will probably notice the "spongy" feel of the deck, which comes from the grayish-black non-skid coating that is applied to seemingly every horizontal surface exposed to the weather. Non-skid-a mix of abrasive grit and synthetic rubber applied in a rippled pattern-keeps you from slipping on a wet, oily, or tilted deck, an all too common occurrence on a naval vessel. Up on the flight deck, the constant pounding and sc.r.a.ping of landing gear and tailhooks quickly erode the coating and expose bare steel. When this happens, maintenance crews mix up a batch and "touch up" worn spots. Also notable is the hangar deck's elaborate fire-suppression system, which can put enough foam into the hangar bay to drown the unwary. Fire hoses and mains sprout from every corner of the hangar bay, and damage control gear is also in evidence.

Looking down into the well of one of the hundreds of ladders aboard a Nimitz Nimitz-cla.s.s (CVN-68) carrier. These are tall and narrow, and are quite grueling to climb.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

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In the overhead are storage racks for everything from aircraft drop tanks to spare engines. You can even see a spare catapult piston-a steel forging as long as a bus-racked high on the wall of the hangar bay. In the forward part of the hangar bay on the starboard side are two more aircraft elevators, as well as the pa.s.sageways that lead into the forecastle. Here you find more AIMD offices and shops, as well as most of the berthing s.p.a.ces for enlisted personnel from the embarked air wing. Cramming almost six thousand personnel into a ship, even though it's close to a quarter mile long, makes for tight quarters. Even so, the enlisted and chiefs' berthing s.p.a.ces on a Nimitz Nimitz are still more comfortable than those aboard a submarine or older Navy surface warship. are still more comfortable than those aboard a submarine or older Navy surface warship.

For a young person coming aboard a warship for the first time, the cramped personal s.p.a.ce may seem harsh. In fact, while personal s.p.a.ce is spartan, it is nevertheless quite functional. Enlisted personnel get a stowage bin under their bunks, and a single upright locker about the size of the one you had back in high school. They can also stow some personal items in their works.p.a.ces, but they still must always plan ahead when packing to go aboard ship. For sleeping, crew will normally be a.s.signed to a bunk (called a "rack"), which will be one in a stack of three. You will find around sixty racks in a berthing s.p.a.ce, with an attached rest room/shower facility (what the Navy calls a "head"), and a small common area with a table, chairs, and television connected to the ship's cable system. Television monitors can be found in almost every s.p.a.ce on board, displaying everything from the ship's Plan of the Day (called the "POD"), to movies, CNN Headline News, and the "plat cams"-a series of television cameras that monitor activities on the flight deck.

The racks themselves are narrow single beds, with a comfortable foam-rubber mattress, and basic bedding. There are also privacy curtains, a small reading lamp, and usually a fresh-air vent-often a vital necessity. While most of the interior s.p.a.ces of a Nimitz Nimitz are air-conditioned, even nuclear-powered chillers sometimes have a hard time keeping up with the hot and humid conditions in the Persian Gulf or the Atlantic Gulf Stream in summer. That stream of cool air on your face is sometimes all that lets you sleep. Other distractions on board can also keep you from getting rest, such as the launching and landing of high-performance combat aircraft on the roof. Crew members with quarters just below the catapults and arresting gear have a hard time sleeping when night flight operations are running, which is why the air wing personnel are berthed here. When the wing is flying, they would not be in their racks anyway. are air-conditioned, even nuclear-powered chillers sometimes have a hard time keeping up with the hot and humid conditions in the Persian Gulf or the Atlantic Gulf Stream in summer. That stream of cool air on your face is sometimes all that lets you sleep. Other distractions on board can also keep you from getting rest, such as the launching and landing of high-performance combat aircraft on the roof. Crew members with quarters just below the catapults and arresting gear have a hard time sleeping when night flight operations are running, which is why the air wing personnel are berthed here. When the wing is flying, they would not be in their racks anyway.

Forward of the living s.p.a.ces, in the very bow of the ship, is the forecastle. Here the anchors, handling gear, and their huge chains are located. It is also the domain of the most traditional jobs in the Navy: the Deck Division. In an era of computers and guided weapons, these are the sailors who can still tie every kind of knot, rig mooring lines, and handle small boats in foul weather. You need these people to operate anything bigger than a rowboat, and aboard a carrier they are indispensable. On the port side of the forecastle you find the first of a set of "stairs," which we'll use to climb up several levels. These are not conventional stairways, but very nearly vertical ladders, and they are quite narrow. You learn to move up and down ships' ladders carefully, and finding a handy stanchion to grasp when you're on them becomes instinctive.

Opening another hatch, you find yourself on a small platform adjacent to the bow. From here, you can climb a few steps and move out onto the four and a half acres that is the carrier's flight deck. Again, the spongy feel of the deck tells you that there is non-skid under your feet. Around the deck, two or three dozen aircraft are packed in tight cl.u.s.ters, to free as much deck s.p.a.ce as possible. During flight operations, the noise is incredible. It is so loud that you must wear earplugs just to watch from up on the island, while flight deck personnel who must work among the aircraft wear special "cranial" helmets with thickly padded ear protectors to preserve their hearing. Only Landing Signals Officers (LSOs, the people who guide aircraft during landings) are allowed on deck during flight operations without a cranial, since they have to clearly hear and see aircraft as they approach the stern for landing.

There are other hazards as well. In fact, the flight deck of a modern aircraft carrier is arguably the most dangerous workplace in the world. Aircraft are constantly threatening to either suck flight deck personnel into their engines, or blow them off of the deck into the ocean. For this reason, the entire perimeter of the flight deck and the elevators is rigged with safety nets. In addition, everyone on the flight deck also wears a "float coat," which is an inflatable life jacket with water-activated flashing strobe light, and a whistle to call for help-just in case the safety nets don't catch you. Standard flight deck apparel also includes steel-toed boots, thick insulated fabric gloves, and goggles (in case a fragment of non-skid or some foreign object/ debris-FOD-is blown into your face).

Flight deck personnel aboard the USS George Washington George Washington (CVN-73). (CVN-73).

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

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Each float coat and cranial is color-coded by job. Under the float coats, deck crews also wear jerseys-heavy, long sleeved T-shirts-of the same color as the float coat (though they may be a different color from the cranials). These color-code combinations are universal aboard Navy ships. Here is what they mean: DECK PERSONNEL IDENTIFICATION GUIDE.

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For example, only sailors wearing purple coats, jerseys, and cranials are allowed to handle fuel and other flammable fluids on deck (they are nicknamed the "grapes").

Keeping an eye on flight-deck operations is a vital task. Up on the island, observers constantly watch the position and flow of planes, personnel, and equipment around the deck. Any deviation from standard procedures or safety rules calls down a sharp and angry rebuke over the flight deck loudspeaker (loud enough to hear through your cranial-and that is really LOUD) telling you exactly exactly what you must do what you must do RIGHT NOW! RIGHT NOW! To help these commands make sense, there is a standard set of coordinates and definitions for the various parts of the flight deck. For example, the catapults are numbered from 1 through 4 in order, starboard to port, bow to stern. The elevators are numbered, with 1 and 2 ahead of the island on the starboard side, number 3 just aft, and number four on the port side aft. The jet blast deflectors (JBDs) are matched to the catapults, 1 through 4. The arresting wires are also numbered, running from number 1 farthest aft, to number 4 up forward. Areas of the deck also have specific names, so that when an observer or lookout yells out a warning, he can direct other eyes to it without delay. Some examples include: To help these commands make sense, there is a standard set of coordinates and definitions for the various parts of the flight deck. For example, the catapults are numbered from 1 through 4 in order, starboard to port, bow to stern. The elevators are numbered, with 1 and 2 ahead of the island on the starboard side, number 3 just aft, and number four on the port side aft. The jet blast deflectors (JBDs) are matched to the catapults, 1 through 4. The arresting wires are also numbered, running from number 1 farthest aft, to number 4 up forward. Areas of the deck also have specific names, so that when an observer or lookout yells out a warning, he can direct other eyes to it without delay. Some examples include: * The "Crotch" The "Crotch"-The point where the roughly 14 landing deck "Angle" ends and the port bow begins.* The "Junkyard"-The area at the base of the island aft. Here tractors, forklifts, a wrecking crane, and the world's smallest fire truck (collectively known as "yellow gear" even though some are now painted white) are parked, always ready to move when needed.* The "Hummer Hole" The "Hummer Hole"-The area just forward of the Junkyard. Here the E-2C Hawkeyes (nicknamed "Hummers") and their cargo-carrying cousins, the C-2 Greyhounds, are parked.* The The "Street"-The " Street" is up on the bow in the area between Catapults 1 and 2; the forward catapult control pod is located there. "Street"-The " Street" is up on the bow in the area between Catapults 1 and 2; the forward catapult control pod is located there.* The "Rows" The "Rows"-Also on the bow are the "1 Row" and "2 Row." These are the zones outboard of Catapults 1 and 2 and are normally used as parking areas for the F/A-18 Hornets when a landing event is active.* The "Finger" The "Finger"-A narrow strip of deck just aft of Elevator 4, with parking s.p.a.ce for a single plane.

Working in this noisy, hot, and dangerous world is the job of some of the bravest young men and women you will ever meet. Most are under twenty-five; and some look so naive (or so scary), you might not trust them to valet park your car at a restaurant. Yet the Navy trusts them to safely handle aircraft worth several billion billion dollars, not to mention the infinitely precious lives of air crews, each representing millions of dollars in training and experience. dollars, not to mention the infinitely precious lives of air crews, each representing millions of dollars in training and experience.

Theirs is a world of extremes. For up to eighteen hours a day, they're subjected to noise that would deafen if not m.u.f.fled; heat and cold that would kill if not insulated. They are surrounded by explosives, fuel, and other dangerous substances,36 and are frequently buffeted by winds of over sixty knots. For this, they receive a special kind of respect and a "hazardous duty" bonus (in 1998, about $130 per month) in addition to their sea pay. These young men and women know their work makes flying aircraft on and off the boat possible, and they take quiet pride in this dirty, dangerous job up on "the roof." Because of the extreme noise, a richly expressive sign language is used to direct operations on the flight deck. Using a series of common and easily understood hand signals, the deck crew personnel tell each other how to move aircraft and load bombs and equipment, and warn each other of emergencies. They constantly watch out for each other, for only the brother or sister sailor looking out for you keeps you safe. All of these efforts are dedicated to just two basic tasks: the launching and landing of aircraft. Let's now look at how it is done in somewhat greater detail. and are frequently buffeted by winds of over sixty knots. For this, they receive a special kind of respect and a "hazardous duty" bonus (in 1998, about $130 per month) in addition to their sea pay. These young men and women know their work makes flying aircraft on and off the boat possible, and they take quiet pride in this dirty, dangerous job up on "the roof." Because of the extreme noise, a richly expressive sign language is used to direct operations on the flight deck. Using a series of common and easily understood hand signals, the deck crew personnel tell each other how to move aircraft and load bombs and equipment, and warn each other of emergencies. They constantly watch out for each other, for only the brother or sister sailor looking out for you keeps you safe. All of these efforts are dedicated to just two basic tasks: the launching and landing of aircraft. Let's now look at how it is done in somewhat greater detail.

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A top view of an improved Nimitz Nimitz-cla.s.s (CVN-68) nuclear-powered aircraft carrier.

JACK RYAN ENTERPRISES, LTD., BY LAURA DENINNO.

If you move aft from the bow down the "Street," you walk between the two bow catapults, each as long as an American football field. And there is a similar catapult arrangement on the landing "angle" on the port side. Most of the machinery for each C13 Mod. 1 catapult is concealed under the flight deck: two slotted cylinders in a long steel trough, each with a narrow gap along the top. Overlapping synthetic rubber flangles cover and seal the gaps. In each cylinder is a piston, with a lug projecting through the sealing strips on top. Each of these lugs leads to a small crablike fixture called a "shuttle," which is up on the flight deck.

When an aircraft is ready to launch, it is maneuvered into position under the guidance of a plane handler. When the nosewheel is just behind the shuttle, a metal attachment on the gear strut, called a towbar, is lowered into a slot on the shuttle. Meanwhile, the Jet Blast Deflector (JBD) just aft of the plane is raised, and another mechanical arm is attached to the rear of the nose gear strut with a device called a "holdback."37 This allows the aircraft to run its engines up to full power, far beyond the ability of the plane's brakes to keep it on the deck. In this way, the bird will have a considerable forward thrust even before it starts moving. Each aircraft type in the wing has its own special color-coded holdback, to prevent them from being used mistakenly on the wrong bird. The exceptions are the F-14 Tomcat and F/ A-18 Hornet, which have permanent holdback devices built into their nosewheelgear struts. This allows the aircraft to run its engines up to full power, far beyond the ability of the plane's brakes to keep it on the deck. In this way, the bird will have a considerable forward thrust even before it starts moving. Each aircraft type in the wing has its own special color-coded holdback, to prevent them from being used mistakenly on the wrong bird. The exceptions are the F-14 Tomcat and F/ A-18 Hornet, which have permanent holdback devices built into their nosewheelgear struts.

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The nose gear of an F/A-18C Hornet on the #1 Catapult of the USS George Washington George Washington (CVN-73). The forward towbar is linked to the catapult shuttle, and the holdback device is in position. (CVN-73). The forward towbar is linked to the catapult shuttle, and the holdback device is in position.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

Once the aircraft is properly hooked up by one of the green-shirted catapult crewmen, another "green shirt" holds up a chalkboard with the plane's expected takeoff weight written on it for the pilot and catapult officer (down in the catapult control pod) to see. If both agree that the number is correct (confirmed by hand signals), then the catapult officer (known as the "shooter") begins to fill the twin pistons with a pressurized charge of saturated steam from the ship's reactor plant.38 The steam pressure is carefully regulated to match the takeoff weight of the aircraft, the speed of the wind over the deck (this is the natural wind speed plus the speed of the ship), and other factors like heat, air pressure/density, and humidity. This has to be very precise. Too much pressure will rip the nosewheel gear out of the plane, while too little will cause a "cold shot." In a cold shot, the aircraft runs down the deck and never reaches takeoff speed; the catapult then hurls it into the water ahead of the onrushing carrier. The steam pressure is carefully regulated to match the takeoff weight of the aircraft, the speed of the wind over the deck (this is the natural wind speed plus the speed of the ship), and other factors like heat, air pressure/density, and humidity. This has to be very precise. Too much pressure will rip the nosewheel gear out of the plane, while too little will cause a "cold shot." In a cold shot, the aircraft runs down the deck and never reaches takeoff speed; the catapult then hurls it into the water ahead of the onrushing carrier.39 At best, the crew will eject and the aircraft will be lost. At worst, both the aircraft and flight crew will be lost. As might be imagined, catapult officers (who are themselves veteran carrier aviators) take this highly responsible job quite seriously. At best, the crew will eject and the aircraft will be lost. At worst, both the aircraft and flight crew will be lost. As might be imagined, catapult officers (who are themselves veteran carrier aviators) take this highly responsible job quite seriously.

Once the pressure is at the desired level, there is a final check of the aircraft by the green shirts. If all appears to be at readiness, the catapult officer signals this to the pilot. The pilot selects the proper engine setting (usually maximum power or afterburner), snaps a salute back to the catapult officer in the pod, and braces for what is about to come. At that point, the catapult "shooter" hits a b.u.t.ton in the control pod, and the twin cylinders are released. This snaps the holdback and throws the aircraft down the catapult track. The pilot/crew is. .h.i.t with several times the force of gravity (what pilots call "G" forces), and their eyes are driven back into their sockets. Approximately one hundred yards/ninety meters and two seconds later, the towbar pops out of the shuttle, and the aircraft is on its own. Having achieved flying speed (usually around 150 knots), the pilot has now gained control of the airplane (that is, he or she can actually fly it).

Back on deck, a cable and pulley system retracts the shuttle to its start position, and the cycle repeats. A well-trained crew can complete this process in less than two minutes. A normal launch sequence using all four catapults can put an airplane into the air every twenty to thirty seconds. This means that launch events for several dozen aircraft can take less than fifteen minutes from start to finish. However, since the aircraft just launched will be back to land in only a couple of hours, the timing of what gets done next can be critical.

Configuring the flight deck for a landing "event" requires that the deck be "respotted," with as many aircraft as possible moved forward. In most cases, these are parked on Rows 1 and 2, so that the "angle" will be clear for returning aircraft; and this means that Catapults 1 and 2 are now blocked and unavailable for use. While it is theoretically possible to launch aircraft during landing operations, this is rarely done. To do so would require much of the air wing to be struck below to the hangar deck, a time-consuming and tiring exercise for the deck crews. In fact, carrier captains like to use the aircraft elevators as little as possible, since these const.i.tute part of the flight deck and parking area for aircraft when they are in the "up" position. It's hard to find anything more precious to a carrier skipper than flight deck s.p.a.ce, and even the four and a half acres on a Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s flattop seems small when filled with airplanes, ordnance, equipment, and people.

The flight deck can not only get crowded, it can easily become dangerous. For this reason aircraft that are not actually taking off or landing are parked and chained down as quickly as possible. Chaining down is also necessary because a slight list on a slick deck can send an aircraft sliding around like a rogue hockey puck on an ice rink. In fact, almost everything on deck is chained down when it is not in use, including the low-rise firefighting and aircraft tractor vehicles. Normally, as soon as an aircraft is shut down and parked, a crew of strong-backed young blue shirts moves in to attach tie-down chains to some of the thousands of tie-down points imbedded in the plating of the flight deck.

On the port side aft is a sponson holding what is called the "Lens." This is a stabilized (against the motion of the ship) system of lights and directional lenses, designed to provide approaching pilots with a visual glide path down to the deck. If an approaching aircraft has the proper att.i.tude and sink rate, then the pilot sees an amber light-or "meatball"-from the system. If the pilot can keep the "ball" centered (with a row of green lights) all the way down (any offset from the proper att.i.tude shows the pilot a row of "red" lights), then it should put him down in the perfect spot for a landing on the deck aft.

Once the flight deck has been respotted for the coming landing event, and the ship has once again come into the wind, things again get exciting. Modern carrier aircraft are too heavy and their stall speeds are too high to possibly land in the roughly 500 feet/152 meters of s.p.a.ce on the flight deck. In fact, the only way to get a high-performance airplane onto a carrier deck is to literally fly it to a "controlled" crash, and stop it forcibly before it falls into the sea. The lens system and other special landing instruments (some aircraft even have an automatic landing system) are useful aids, but pilots usually need additional help. This formidable task is the job of a lot of very special equipment and is overseen by the Landing Signals Officers (LSOs). Back in the old days of propeller-driven planes and the early jets, LSOs were the only only landing aid for pilots. They did their job with nothing more than a pair of lighted paddles (to show the pilots their landing att.i.tude) and a few hand signals. LSOs today do their job from a small platform on the port side aft, and it is there that we now will go to get a perspective on the fine art of a carrier landing. landing aid for pilots. They did their job with nothing more than a pair of lighted paddles (to show the pilots their landing att.i.tude) and a few hand signals. LSOs today do their job from a small platform on the port side aft, and it is there that we now will go to get a perspective on the fine art of a carrier landing.

Landing a carrier aircraft starts in the aircraft c.o.c.kpit, when the pilot makes the break into the ship's landing pattern. The pattern itself is controlled by the Carrier Air Traffic Control Center (CATCC) located one level down from the flight deck. The CATCC is a miniature of what you would find at any major airport, and it functions in exactly the same way. The controller's job is to "stack" the aircraft, prioritize them into an oval-shaped pattern about a mile wide and four miles long around the port side of the carrier, and "stagger" them, so the LSO has the necessary time to bring each aboard. (They can land an aircraft about every thirty seconds under good conditions.) The aircraft in the pattern are prioritized by their "fuel state," a polite way of saying that the first planes to be brought aboard are the ones that are about to fall into the ocean from fuel starvation. Just to be sure this does not happen, the carrier usually has an airborne tanker overhead during flight operations to refuel airplanes too close to the Empty point on their fuel gauges.

When the landing event has been properly organized, the "Lens" is turned on, and the first pilot in the pattern makes the "break" out of the pattern to line up on the stern of the carrier. During the "downwind" leg of the pattern, the pilot drops the plane's landing gear, tailhook, and flaps, makes sure the radio is set up on the LSO frequency, and turns left toward the boat. a.s.suming all this has been done properly, the aircraft should start its final approach at eight hundred feet alt.i.tude, about three-quarters of a mile from the stern of the carrier, and just fifteen seconds from touchdown.

Detail of a landing wire and capstan on the USS George Washington George Washington (CVN-73). (CVN-73).

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

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