Artillery Through the Ages Part 7

HOWITZERS

The howitzer was invented by the Dutch in the seventeenth century to throw larger projectiles (usually bombs) than could the field pieces, in a high trajectory similar to the mortar, but from a lighter and more mobile weapon. The wide-purpose efficiency of the howitzer was appreciated almost at once, and it was soon adopted by all European armies. The weapon owed its mobility to a rugged, two-wheeled carriage like a field carriage, but with a relatively short trail that permitted the wide arc of elevation needed for this weapon.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 34--SPANISH 6-INCH HOWITZER (1759-88). This bronze piece was founded during the reign of Charles III and bears his shield. a--Dolphin, or handle, b--Bore, c--Powder chamber.]

English howitzers of the 1750's were of three calibers: 5.8-, 8-, and 10-inch, but the 10-incher was so heavy (some 50 inches long and over 3,500 pounds) that it was quickly discarded. Muller deplored the superfluous weight of these pieces and developed 6-, 8-, 10, and 13-inch howitzers in which, by a more calculated distribution of the metal, he achieved much lighter weapons. Muller's howitzers survived in the early 6- to 10-inch pieces of United States artillery and one fine little 24-pounder of the late eighteenth century happens to be among the armament of Castillo de San Marcos, along with some early nineteenth century howitzers. The British, incidentally, were the first to bring this type gun to Florida. None appeared on the Castillo inventory until the 1760's.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 35--ENGLISH 8-INCH "HOWITZ" CARRIAGE (1756). The short trail enabled greater lat.i.tude in elevating the howitzer.]

In addition to the very light and therefore easily portable mountain howitzer used for Indian warfare, United States artillery of 1850 included 12-, 24-, and 32-pounder field, 24-pounder and 8-inch siege and garrison, and the 10-inch seacoast howitzer. The Navy had a 12-pounder heavy and a 24-pounder, to which were added the 12- and 24-pounder Dahlgren rifled howitzers of the Civil War period. Such guns were often used in landing operations. The following table gives some typical ranges:

_Ranges of U. S. Howitzers in the 1860's_

Caliber Elevation Range in yards

10-inch seacoast 5 1,650 8-inch siege 1230' 2,280 24-pounder naval 5 1,270 12-pounder heavy naval 5 1,085 20-pounder Dahlgren rifled 5 1,960 12-pounder Dahlgren rifled 5 1,770

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 36--ENGLISH MORTAR ON ELEVATING BED (1740).]

From earliest times the usefulness of the mortar as an arm of the artillery has been clearly recognized. Up until the 1800's the weapon was usually made of bronze, and many mortars had a fixed elevation of 45, which in the sixteenth century was thought to be the proper elevation for maximum range of any cannon. In the 1750's Muller complained of the stupidity of English artillerists in continuing to use fixed-elevation mortars, and the Spanish made a _mortero de plancha_, or "plate" mortar (fig. 37), as late as 1788. Range for such a fixed-elevation weapon was varied by using more or less powder, as the case required. But the most useful mortar, of course, had trunnions and adjustable elevation by means of quoins.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 37--SPANISH 5-INCH BRONZE MORTAR (1788).]

The mortar was mounted on a "bed"--a pair of wooden cheeks held together by transoms. Since a bed had no wheels, the piece was transported on a mortar wagon or sling cart. In the battery, the mortar was generally bedded upon a level wooden platform; aboard ship, it was a revolving platform, so that the piece could be quickly aimed right or left. The mortar's weight, plus the high angle of elevation, kept it pretty well in place when it was fired, although English artillerists took the additional precaution of lashing it down.

The mortar did not use a wad, because a wad prevented the fuze of the sh.e.l.l from igniting. To the layman, it may seem strange that the sh.e.l.l was never loaded with the fuze toward the powder charge of the gun.

But the fuze was always toward the muzzle and away from the blast, a practice which dated from the early days when mortars were discharged by "double firing": the gunner lit the fuze of the sh.e.l.l with one hand and the priming of the mortar with the other. Not until the late 1600's did the method of letting the powder blast ignite the fuze become general. It was a change that greatly simplified the use of the arm and, no doubt, caused the mortarman to heave a sigh of relief.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 38--SPANISH 10-INCH BRONZE MORTAR (1759-88).

a--Dolphin, or handle, b--Bore, c--Powder chamber.]

Most mortars were equipped with dolphins, either singly or in pairs, which were used for lifting the weapon onto its bed. Often there was a little bracketed cup--a priming pan--under the vent, a handy gadget that saved spilling a lot of powder at the almost vertical breech. As with other bronze cannon, mortars were embellished with shields, scrolls, names, and other decoration.

About 1750, the French mortar had a bore length 1-1/2 diameters of the sh.e.l.l; in England, the bore was 2 diameters for the smaller calibers and 3 for the 10- and 13-inchers. The extra length added a great deal of weight to the English mortars: the 13-inch weighed 25 hundredweight, while the French equivalent weighed only about half that much. Muller complained that mortar designers slavishly copied what they saw in other guns. For instance, he said, the reinforce was unnecessary; it "... overloads the Mortar with a heap of useless metal, and that in a place where the least strength is required, yet as if this unnecessary metal was not sufficient, they add a great projection at the mouth, which serves to no other purpose than to make the Mortar top-heavy. The mouldings are likewise jumbled together, without any taste or method, tho' they are taken from architecture."

Field mortars in use during Muller's time included 4.6-, 5.8-, 8-, 10-, and 13-inch "land" mortars and 10- and 13-inch "sea" mortars.

Muller, of course, redesigned them.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 39--COEHORN MORTAR. The British General Oglethorpe used 20 coehorns in his 1740 bombardment of St. Augustine.

These small mortars were also used extensively during the War Between the States.]

The small mortars called coehorns (fig. 39) were invented by the famed Dutch military engineer, Baron van Menno Coehoorn, and used by him in 1673 to the great discomfit of French garrisons. Oglethorpe had many of them in his 1740 bombardment of St. Augustine when the Spanish, trying to translate coehorn into their own tongue, called them _cuernos de vaca_--"cow horns." They continued in use through the U.

S. Civil War, and some of them may still be seen in the battlefield parks today.

Bombs and carca.s.ses were usual for mortar firing, but stone projectiles remained in use as late as 1800 for the pedrero cla.s.s (fig. 43). Mortar projectiles were quite formidable; even in the sixteenth century missiles weighing 100 or more pounds were not uncommon, and the 13-inch mortar of 1860 fired a 200-pound sh.e.l.l. The larger projectiles had to be whipped up to the muzzle with block and tackle.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 40--THE "DICTATOR." This huge 13-inch mortar was used by the Federal artillery in the bombardment of Petersburg, Va., 1864-65.]

In the last century, the bronze mortars metamorphosed into the great cast-iron mortars, such as "The Dictator," that mammoth Federal piece used against Petersburg, Va. Wrought-iron beds with a pair of rollers were built for them. In spite of their high trajectory, mortars could range well over a mile, as witness these figures for United States mortars of the 1860's, firing at 45 elevation:

_Ranges of U. S. Mortars in 1861_

Caliber Projectile Range weight (pounds) (yards)

8-inch siege 45 1,837 10-inch siege 90 2,100 12-inch seacoast 200 4,625 13-inch seacoast 200 4,325

At the siege of Fort Pulaski in 1862, however, General Gillmore complained that the mortars were highly inaccurate at mile-long range.

On this point, John Muller would have nodded his head emphatically. A hundred years before Gillmore's complaint, Muller had argued that a range of something less than 1,500 yards was ample for mortars or, for that matter, all guns. "When the ranges are greater," said Muller, "they are so uncertain, and it is so difficult to judge how far the sh.e.l.l falls short, or exceeds the distance of the object, that it serves to no other purpose than to throw away the Powder and sh.e.l.l, without being able to do any execution."

PETARDS

"Hoist with his own petard," an ancient phrase signifying that one's carefully laid scheme has exploded, had truly graphic meaning in the old days when everybody knew what a petard was. Since the petard fired no projectile, it was hardly a gun. Roughly speaking, it was nothing but an iron bucket full of gunpowder. The petardier would hang it on a gate, something like hanging your hat on a nail, and blast the gate open by firing the charge.

Small petards weighed about 50 pounds; the large ones, around 70 pounds. They had to be heavy enough to be effective, yet light enough for a couple of men to lift up handily and hang on the target. The bucket part was packed full of the powder mixture, then a 2-1/2-inch-thick board was bolted to the rim in order to keep the powder in and the air out. An iron tube fuze was screwed into a small hole in the back or side of the weapon. When all was ready, the petardiers seized the two handles of the petard and carried it to the troublesome door. Here they set a screw, hung the explosive instrument upon it, lit the fuze, and "retired."

Petards were used frequently in King William's War of the 1680's to force the gates of small German towns. But on a well-barred, double gate the small petard was useless, and the great petard would break only the fore part of such a gate. Furthermore, as one would guess, hanging a petard was a hazardous occupation; it went out of style in the early 1700's.

PROJECTILES

There are four different types of artillery projectiles which, in one form or another, have been used since very early times:

(1) Battering projectiles (solid shot).

(2) Exploding sh.e.l.ls.

(3) Scatter shot (case or canister, grape, shrapnel).

(4) Incendiary and chemical projectiles.

SOLID SHOT

At Havana, Cuba, in the early days, there was an abundance of round stones lying around, put there by Mother Nature. Artillerists at Havana never lacked projectiles. Stone b.a.l.l.s, cheap to manufacture, relatively light and therefore well suited to the feeble construction of early ordnance, were in general use for large caliber cannon in the fourteenth century. There were experiments along other lines such as those at Tournay in the 1330's with long, pointed projectiles.

Lead-coated stones were fairly popular, and solid lead b.a.l.l.s were used in some small pieces, but the stone ball was more or less standard.

Cast-iron shot had been introduced by 1400, and, with the improvement of cannon during that century, iron shot gradually replaced stone. By the end of the 1500's stone survived for use only in the pedreros, murtherers, and other relics of the earlier period. Iron shot for the smoothbore was a solid, round shot, cast in fairly accurate molds; the mold marks that invariably show on all cannonb.a.l.l.s were of small importance, for the ball did not fit the bore tightly. After casting, shot were checked with a ring gauge (fig. 41)--a hoop through which each ball had to pa.s.s. The Spanish term for this tool is very descriptive: _pasabala_, "ball-pa.s.ser."

Shot was used mainly in the flat-trajectory cannon. The small caliber guns fired nothing but shot, for small sizes of the other type projectiles were not effective. Shot was the prescription when the situation called for "great accuracy, at very long range," and penetration. Fired at ships, a shot was capable of breaching the planks (at 100-yard range a 24-pounder shot would penetrate 4-1/2 feet of "sound and hard" oak). With a fair aim at the waterline, a gunner could sink or seriously damage a vessel with a few rounds. On ironclad targets like the _Monitor_ and _Merrimac_, however, round shot did little more than bounce; it took the long, armor-piercing rifle projectile to force the development of the tremendously thick plate of modern times.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 41--EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PROJECTILES. (Not to scale.)]

Round shot was very useful for knocking out enemy batteries. The gunner put his cannon on the flank of the hostile guns and used ricochet firing so that the ball, just clearing the defense wall, would bounce among the enemy guns, wound the crews, and break the gun carriages. In the destruction of fort walls, shot was essential. After dismounting the enemy pieces, the siege guns moved close enough to batter down the walls. The procedure was not as haphazard as it sounds. Cannon were brought as close as possible to the target, and the gunner literally cut out a low section with gunfire so that the wall above tumbled down into the moat and made a ramp right up to the breach. Firing at the upper part of the wall defeated its own purpose, for the rubble brought down only protected the foundation area, and the breach was so high that a.s.sault troops had to use ladders.

The most effective bombardment of Castillo de San Marcos occurred during the 1740 siege, and shot did the most damage. The heaviest English siege cannon were 18-pounders, over 1,000 yards from the fort.

Spanish Engineer Pedro Ruiz de Olano reported that the b.a.l.l.s did not penetrate the ma.s.sive main walls more than a foot and a half, but the parapets, being only 3 feet thick, suffered considerable damage. Some of the old parapets, Engineer Ruiz said, "have been demolished, and the new ones have suffered very much owing to their recent construction." (He meant that the new mortar had not sufficiently hardened.) Ruiz was not deceived about what would happen if hostile batteries were able to get closer; in such case, he thought, the enemy "will no doubt succeed in destroying the parapets and dismounting the guns."

Variations of round shot were bar shot and chain shot (fig. 41), two or more projectiles linked together for simultaneous firing. Bar shot appears in a Castillo inventory of 1706, and like chain shot, was for specialized work like cutting a ship's rigging. There is one apocryphal tale, however, about an experiment with chain shot as anti-personnel missiles: instead of charging a single cannon with the two b.a.l.l.s, two guns were used, side by side. The ball in one gun was chained to the ball in the other. The projectiles were to fly forth, stretching the long chain between them, mowing down a sizeable segment of the enemy. Instead, the chain wrapped the gun crews in a murderous embrace; one gun had fired late.