Ancient Rome : from the earliest times down to 476 A. D Part 25

_Rome_ was built on seven hills,--the Palatine, the Aventine, the Capitoline, the Esquiline (the largest), the Quirinal, the Viminal, and the Coelian.

There were various public squares (_forum_ = square or park). Some were places of resort for public business, and most were adorned with porticos. The most celebrated square was the _Forum Romanum_, or simply _The Forum_. There were also the _Forum Caesaris_ and _Forum Trajani_.

Some served as markets; as _Forum Boarium_, the cattle market; _Forum Suarium_, the hog market, etc.

Temples were numerous. The _Pantheon_ (temple of all the G.o.ds), built by Agrippa and restored by Hadrian, was dedicated to Jupiter. It was situated outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, and is now used as a Christian church. The Temple of Apollo Palatinus, built by Augustus, was on the Palatine Hill. It contained a library, which was founded by Augustus. The Temple of Aesculapius was on an island in the Tiber; that of Concordia, on the slope of the Capitoline Hill, was dedicated in 377 B.C., and restored by Tiberius. The Temple of Ja.n.u.s was an arched pa.s.sage east of the Forum, the gates of which were open during war. Up to the time of Ovid the gates had been closed but three times, once in Numa's reign, again at the close of the battle of Actium. Ja.n.u.s was one of the oldest Latin divinities, and was represented with a face in front and another on the back of his head. From him is named the month of January.

(Ill.u.s.tration: ROME AND ENVIR.)

There were several temples of Jupiter, the most famous of which was that of Jupiter Optimus, Maximus, or Capitolinus, built during the dynasty of the Tarquins, and splendidly adorned. (See Chapter V.) There were also numerous temples of Juno, of Mars, and of other deities.

The COLOSSeUM was the largest building in Rome.

There were three theatres; that of Pompey, of Marcellus, and of Balbus; and several circuses, the most famous of which was the Circus Maximus.

The BASILICAE were halls of justice (court-houses). The most important was the Basilica Julia, begun by Caesar and finished by Augustus, which was situated on the south side of the Forum, and the foundations of which can still be seen.

The CURIA, or Senate-house, was in the Forum. Each of the thirty curiae had a place of meeting, called also a curia, where were discussed public questions pertaining to politics, finance, or religion.

The PUBLIC BATHS were numerous. There were Thermae (hot baths) of Nero, of t.i.tus, of Trajan, of Caracalla, and of others, ruins of which still exist.

Pure water was brought into the city from the surrounding hills by fourteen different aqueducts, all of which were well built, and three of which are still in use. The first aqueduct (Aqua Appia) was built about 313 B.C., by Appius Claudius.

SEWERS intersected Rome in all directions, and some were of immense size. The CLOaCA MAXIMA, built by Tarquin, was the largest, and is still in use. Its innermost arch has a diameter of fourteen feet.

There are said to have been twenty TRIUMPHAL ARCHES, of which five now remain, 1. The ARCH OF DRUSUS, on the Appian Way, erected in honor of Claudius Drusus. 2. The ARCH OF t.i.tUS, at the foot of the Palatine Hill, built by t.i.tus to commemorate his conquest of Judaea, The bas-reliefs on this arch represent the spoils taken from the temple at Jerusalem, carried in triumphal procession. 3. The ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, built by the Senate in 207 A. D., at the end of the Via Sacra, in honor of the Emperor and his two sons for their conquest of the Parthians and Arabians. 4. The ARCH OF GALLIeNUS. 5. The ARCH OF CONSTANTINE.

There were two famous MAUSOLeA, that of Augustus, now in ruins, and that of Hadrian, which, stripped of its ornaments, is now the Castle of San Angelo.

The COLUMNS commemorating persons or events were numerous. The most remarkable of these were erected for naval victories, and called COLUMNAE ROSTRaTAE. The one of Duilius, in honor of the victory at Mylae (261 B. C.), still stands. It has three ship-beaks attached to each side. Columns were built in honor of several Emperors. That of Trajan is perhaps best known.

The COLUMNA MILLIARIA was a milestone set up by Augustus in the Forum, from which all distances on the different public roads were measured. It was called _Milliarium Aureum_, or the golden milestone.

CHAPTER XLVIII. COLONIES.--THE CALENDAR.--RELIGION.

Colonies were established by Rome throughout its whole history. They were intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to repress hostile incursions. Many were founded to provide for veteran soldiers; a practice which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the Emperors.

No colony was established without a _lex_, _plebiscitum_, or _senatus consultum_. Religious ceremonies always accompanied their foundation, and the anniversary was observed.

The colonies were divided into two cla.s.ses, viz. Roman, and Latin or military. Members of the former cla.s.s had all the rights of Roman citizens; those of the latter could not vote in the Comitia at Rome.

The _Latini_, who were once Roman citizens, and who always felt equal to them, were uneasy in their subordinate position. But by the Julian law, pa.s.sed in 90 B. C., they acquired the right of voting at Rome, and were placed on the same footing as Roman colonists.

THE CALENDAR.

The Roman year began with March. There were twelve months, and each month had three divisions, the KALENDS, NONES, and IDES. The Kalends fell on the first of the month; the Nones, on the 7th of March, May, July, and October; in other months, on the 5th. The Ides came eight days after the Nones. If an event happened on these divisions, it was said to occur on the Kalends, Nones, or Ides of the month. If it happened between any of these divisions, it was said to occur so many days _before_ the division _following_ the event. The year was reckoned from the foundation of the city (753 B.C.), and often the names of the Consuls of that year were added.

RELIGION.

The Romans were religious, and had numerous G.o.ds and G.o.ddesses: JUPITER and JUNO, the G.o.d and G.o.ddess of light; SATURN, the G.o.d of seed-sowing; TELLUS, the G.o.ddess of the nourishing earth; CERES, the G.o.ddess of growth; CONSUS and OPS, who presided over the harvest; PALES, the G.o.d of the flocks; and LUPERCUS, the G.o.d of fertility. Various festivals were celebrated in honor of these, as the Saturnalia, in December; the Tellilia (Tellus), Cerialia (Ceres), and Palilia (Pales), in April; and the Lupercalia, in February.

VESTA was the G.o.ddess of the house, and as every family had an altar erected for her worship, so the state, as a combination of families, had a common altar to her in the temple of Vesta. In this temple were also worshipped the Penates and Lares.

The LARES were special guardians of private houses. Some protected fields and cities. Images of Lares of diminutive size, clad often in dog-skins, were ranged along the hearth. The people honored them on the Kalends of May and other festival days by decking them with flowers, and by offering them wine, incense, flour, and portions of their meals upon plates.

The PENaTES were kept and worshipped only in the inmost chambers of houses and temples. Their statues, made of wax, wood, or ivory, were also kept in the inner hall.

The priestesses of Vesta were six in number, and were called VESTAL VIRGINS. When a vestal was to be elected, the Pontifex Maximus chose twenty young girls from high families. Of these one was chosen by lot to fill the vacancy, and she was bound to serve for thirty years. The Vestals were preceded by a lictor when in public. They had private seats in the public shows, and had the power of delivering from punishment any condemned person they happened to meet. They wore white dresses and white fillets. Their chief duty was to keep the fire always burning on the hearth (_focus publicus_) in the temple. They could not marry.

FLAMINES.

The FLAMINES were priests devoted to the service of some particular G.o.d.

There were fifteen, and they were chosen first in the Comitia Curiata, and afterwards probably in the Tributa. The most distinguished of all the Flamines was the FLAMEN DIaLIS (Jupiter). He had the right to a lictor, to the _sella curulis_, and to a seat in the Senate. If one in bonds took refuge in his house, the chains were at once removed. This priest, however, could not be away from the city a single night, and was forbidden to sleep out of his own bed for three consecutive nights. He was not allowed to mount a horse, or even to touch one, or to look upon an army outside of the city walls.

THE SALII. These were priests of Mars, twelve in number, and always chosen from the patricians. They celebrated the festival of Mars on the 1st of March, and for several successive days.

THE AUGURES.

This body varied in number, from three, in early times, to sixteen in the time of Caesar. It was composed of men who were believed to interpret the will of the G.o.ds, and to declare whether the omens were favorable or otherwise. No public act of any kind could be performed, no election held, no law pa.s.sed, no war waged, without first consulting the omens. There was no appeal from the decision of the Augurs, and hence their power was great. They held office for life, and were a close corporation, filling their own vacancies until 103 B. C.

THE FETIALES.

This was another body of priests holding office for life, and numbering probably twenty. They were expected, whenever any dispute arose with other nations, to demand satisfaction, to determine whether hostilities should be begun, and to preside at any ratification of peace.

CHAPTER XLIX. THE ROMAN ARMY IN CAESAR'S TIME.

The LEGIO was composed of infantry, and, though larger, corresponded to our regiment. It was divided into ten cohorts (battalions), each cohort into three maniples (companies), and each maniple into two centuries (platoons). In theory the number in each legion was six thousand, in practice about four thousand. The usual order of battle was to draw up each legion in three lines (_acies_ triplex), the first consisting of four cohorts, the second and third of three each. The defensive armor of the legionary soldier was a helmet of metal or leather, a shield (four feet by two and a half), greaves, and corselets of various material.

The outer garment was a woollen blanket, fastened to the shoulders by a buckle. Higher officers wore a long purple cloak. The offensive armor was a short, straight two-edged sword (_gladius_), about two feet long, worn by privates on the right side, so as not to interfere with the shield, but on the left side by officers. The javelin (_pilum_) was a heavy wooden shaft with an iron head, the whole about seven feet long and weighing fully ten pounds. All legionary soldiers were Roman citizens. The auxiliaries were hired or drafted troops, and were always light-armed. The cavalry in Caesar's time was made up of auxiliaries taken from the different provinces.

The officers were:--1. The IMPERATOR, or commander in chief. 2. The LEGaTI, or staff officers, varying in number. Caesar had ten. 3. The QUAESTOR, or quartermaster. 4. The TRIBuNI MILITUM, numbering six in each legion, and a.s.sisting the Imperator in his duties.

5. The PRAEFECTI, who held various subordinate commands. 6. The CENTURIoNES, who were non-commissioned officers, and rose in rank for good service. There were sixty centurions in each legion, six in each cohort, and one in each century. They were promoted from the ranks, but rarely rose above centurion of the first rank. All the officers, except the centurions, came from either senatorial or equestrian families.

The COHORS PRAETORIA was a body of picked troops that acted as body guard to the Imperator.

The STANDARD (_signum_) of the legion was an eagle with outstretched wings, perched upon a pole.

The Romans when on the march fortified their camp every night. They made it rectangular in shape, and threw up fortifications always in the same way. It was surrounded by a ditch and rampart. The legionary soldiers encamped next to the wall on the inside of the fortifications, thus surrounding the cavalry, the auxiliaries, the general and his staff. The general's tent was called the _Praetorium_, and the entrance to the camp in front of his tent was called the Praetorian Gate. The opposite entrance was called the Dec.u.man Gate.