A Civic Biology Part 36

Change of Air.--Persons in poor health, especially those having tuberculosis, are often cured by a change of air. This is not always so much due to the composition of the air as to change of occupation, rest, and good food. Mountain air is dry, and relatively free from dust and bacteria, and often helps a person having tuberculosis. Air at the seaside is beneficial for some forms of disease, especially hay fever and bone tuberculosis. Many sanitariums have been established for this latter disease near the ocean, and thousands of lives are being annually saved in this way.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Unfavorable sleeping conditions. Explain why unfavorable.]

Ventilation of Sleeping Rooms.--Sleeping in close rooms is the cause of much illness. Beds ought to be placed so that a constant supply of fresh air is given without a direct draft. This may often be managed with the use of screens. Bedroom windows should be thrown open in the morning to allow free entrance of the sun and air, bedclothes should be washed frequently, and sheets and pillow covers often changed. Bedroom furniture should be simple, and but little drapery allowed in the room.

Hygienic Habits of Breathing.--Every one ought to accustom himself upon going into the open air to inspire slowly and deeply to the full capacity of the lungs. A slow expiration should follow. Take care to force the air out. Breathe through the nose, thus warming the air you inspire before it enters the lungs and chills the blood. Repeat this exercise several times every day. You will thus prevent certain of the air sacs which are not often used from becoming hardened and permanently closed.

Relation of Proper Exercise to Health.--We are all aware that exercise in moderation has a beneficial effect upon the human organism. The pale face, drooping shoulders, and narrow chest of the boy or girl who takes no regular exercise is too well known. Exercise, besides giving direct use of the muscles, increases the work of the heart and lungs, causing deeper breathing and giving the heart muscles increased work; it liberates heat and carbon dioxide from the tissues where the work is taking place, thus increasing the respiration of the tissues themselves, and aids mechanically in the removal of wastes from tissues. It is well known that exercise, when taken some little time after eating, has a very beneficial effect upon digestion. Exercise and especially games are of immense importance to the nervous system as a means of rest. The increasing number of playgrounds in this country is due to this acknowledged need of exercise, especially for growing children.

Proper exercise should be moderate and varied. Walking in itself is a valuable means of exercising certain muscles, so is bicycling, but neither is ideal as the _only_ form to be used. _Vary_ your exercise so as to bring different muscles into play, take exercise that will allow free breathing out of doors if possible, and the natural fatigue which follows will lead you to take the rest and sleep that every normal body requires.

Exercise should always be limited by fatigue, which brings with it fatigue poisons. This is nature's signal when to rest. If one's use of diet and air is proper, the fatigue point will be much further off than otherwise. One should learn to _relax_ when not in activity. The habit produces rest, even between exertions very close together, and enables one to continue to repeat those exertions for a much longer time than otherwise. The habit of lying down when tired is a good one.

The Relation of Tight Clothing to Correct Breathing.--It is impossible to breathe correctly unless the clothing is worn loosely over the chest and abdomen. Tight corsets and tight belts prevent the walls of the chest and the abdomen from pushing outward and interfere with the drawing of air into the lungs. They may also result in permanent distortion of parts of the skeleton directly under the pressure. Other organs of the body cavity, as the stomach and intestines, may be forced downward, out of place, and in consequence cannot perform their work properly.

Suffocation and Artificial Respiration.--Suffocation results from the shutting off of the supply of oxygen from the lungs. It may be brought about by an obstruction in the windpipe, by a lack of oxygen in the air, by inhaling some other gas in quant.i.ty, or by drowning. A severe electric shock may paralyze the nervous centers which control respiration, thus causing a kind of suffocation. In the above cases, death often may be prevented by prompt recourse to artificial respiration. To accomplish this, place the patient on his back with the head lower than the body; grasp the arms near the elbows and draw them _upward_ and _outward_ until they are stretched above the head, on a line with the body. By this means the chest cavity is enlarged and an inspiration produced. To produce an expiration, carry the arms downward, and press them against the chest, thus forcing the air out of the lungs. This exercise, regularly repeated every few seconds, if necessary for hours, has been the source of saving many lives.

Common Diseases of the Nose and Throat.--Catarrh is a disease to which people with sensitive mucous membrane of the nose and throat are subject. It is indicated by the constant secretion of mucus from these membranes. Frequent spraying of the nose and throat with some mild antiseptic solutions is found helpful. Chronic catarrh should be attended to by a physician. Often we find children breathing entirely through the mouth, the nose being seemingly stopped up. When this goes on for some time the nose and throat should be examined by a physician for _adenoids_, or growths of soft ma.s.ses of tissue which fill up the nose cavity, thus causing a shortage of the air supply for the body. Many a child, backward at school, thin and irritable, has been changed to a healthy, normal, bright scholar by the removal of adenoids. Sometimes the tonsils at the back of the mouth cavity may become enlarged, thus shutting off the air supply and causing the same trouble as we see in a case of adenoids. The simple removal of the obstacle by a doctor soon cures this condition. (See page 395.)

Organs of Excretion.--All the life processes which take place in a living thing result ultimately, in addition to giving off of carbon dioxide, in the formation of organic wastes within the body. The retention of these wastes which contain nitrogen, is harmful to animals. In man, the skin and kidneys remove this waste from the body, hence they are called the organs of excretion.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Longitudinal section through a kidney.]

The Human Kidney.--The human kidney is about four inches long, two and one half inches wide, and one inch in thickness. Its color is dark red. If the structure of the medulla and cortex (see figure above) is examined under the compound microscope, you will find these regions to be composed of a vast number of tiny branched and twisted tubules. The outer end of each of these tubules opens into the _pelvis_, the s.p.a.ce within the kidney; the inner end, in the cortex, forms a tiny closed sac. In each sac, the outer wall of the tube has grown inward and carried with it a very tiny artery.

This artery breaks up into a ma.s.s of capillaries. These capillaries, in turn, unite to form a small vein as they leave the little sac. Each of these sacs with its contained blood vessels is called a _glomerulus_.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Diagram of kidney circulation, showing a glomerulus and tubule: _a_, artery bringing blood to part; _b_, capillary bringing blood to glomerulus; _b'_, vessel continuing with blood to vein; _c_, vein; _t_, tubule; _G_, glomerulus.]

Wastes given off by the Blood in the Kidney.--In the glomerulus the blood loses by osmosis, through the very thin walls of the capillaries, first, a considerable amount of water (amounting to nearly three pints daily); second, a nitrogenous waste material known as urea; third, salts and other waste organic substances, uric acid among them.

These waste products, together with the water containing them, are known as _urine_. The total amount of nitrogenous waste leaving the body each day is about twenty grams. It is pa.s.sed through the _ureter_ to the _urinary bladder_; from this reservoir it is pa.s.sed out of the body, through a tube called the _urethra_. After the blood has pa.s.sed through the glomeruli of the kidneys it is purer than in any other place in the body, because, before coming there, it lost a large part of its burden of carbon dioxide in the lungs. After leaving the kidney it has lost much of its nitrogenous waste. So dependent is the body upon the excretion of its poisonous material that, in cases where the kidneys do not do their work properly, death may ensue within a few hours.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Diagram of a section of the skin. (Highly magnified.)]

Structure and Use of Sweat Glands.--If you examine the palm of your hand with a lens, you will notice the surface is thrown into little ridges. In these ridges may be found a large number of very tiny pits; these are the pores or openings of the sweat-secreting glands. From each opening a little tube penetrates deep within the epidermis; there, coiling around upon itself several times, it forms the sweat gland. Close around this coiled tube are found many capillaries. From the blood in these capillaries, cells lining the wall of the gland take water, and with it a little carbon dioxide, urea, and some salts (common salt among others). This forms the excretion known as _sweat_. The combined secretions from these glands amount normally to a little over a pint during twenty-four hours. At all times, a small amount of sweat is given off, but this is evaporated or is absorbed by the underwear; as this pa.s.ses off unnoticed, it is called _insensible perspiration_. In hot weather or after hard manual labor the amount of perspiration is greatly increased.

Regulation of Heat of the Body.--The bodily temperature of a person engaged in manual labor will be found to be but little higher than the temperature of the same person at rest. We know from our previous experiments that heat is released. Muscles, nearly one half the weight of the body, release about five sixths of their energy as heat. At all times they are giving up some heat. How is it that the bodily temperature does not differ greatly at such times? The temperature of the body is largely regulated by means of the activity of the sweat glands. The blood carries much of the heat, liberated in the various parts of the body by the oxidation of food, to the surface of the body, where it is lost in the evaporation of sweat. In hot weather the blood vessels of the skin are dilated; in cold weather they are made smaller by the action of the nervous system. The blood thus loses water in the skin, the water evaporates, and we are cooled off. _The object of increased perspiration, then, is to remove heat from the body._ With a large amount of blood present in the skin, perspiration is increased; with a small amount, it is diminished. Hence, we have in the skin an automatic regulator of bodily temperature.

Sweat Glands under Nervous Control.--The sweat glands, like the other glands in the body, are under the control of the sympathetic nervous system. Frequently the nerves dilate the blood vessels of the skin, thus helping the sweat glands to secrete, by giving them more blood.

"Thus regulation is carried out by the nervous system determining, on the one hand, the _loss_ by governing the supply of blood to the skin and the action of the sweat glands; and on the other, the _production_ by diminishing or increasing the oxidation of the tissues."--FOSTER AND Sh.o.r.e, _Physiology_.

Colds and Fevers.--The regulation of blood pa.s.sing through the blood vessels is under control of the nervous system. If this mechanism is interfered with in any way, the sweat glands may not do their work, perspiration may be stopped, and the heat from oxidation held within the body. The body temperature goes up, and a fever results.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _A_, blood vessels in skin normal; _B_, when congested.]

If the blood vessels in the skin are suddenly cooled when full of blood, they contract and send the blood elsewhere. As a result a congestion or cold may follow. Colds are, in reality, a congestion of membranes lining certain parts of the body, as the nose, throat, windpipe, or lungs.

When suffering from a cold, it is therefore important not to chill the skin, as a full blood supply should be kept in it and so kept from the seat of the congestion. For this reason hot baths (which call the blood to the skin), the avoiding of drafts (which chill the skin), and warm clothing are useful factors in the care of colds.

Hygiene of the Skin.--The skin is of importance both as an organ of excretion and as a regulator of bodily temperature. The skin of the entire body should be bathed frequently so that this function of excretion may be properly performed. Pride in one's own appearance forbids a dirty skin. For those who can stand it, a cold sponge bath is best. Soap should be used daily on parts exposed to dirt. Exercise in the open air is important to all who desire a good complexion. The body should be kept at an even temperature by the use of proper underclothing. Wool, a poor conductor of heat, should be used in winter, and cotton, which allows of a free escape of heat, in summer.

Cuts, Bruises, and Burns.--In case the skin is badly broken, it is necessary to prevent the entrance and growth of bacteria. This may be done by washing the wound with weak antiseptic solutions such as 3 per cent _carbolic acid_, 3 per cent _lysol_, or _peroxide of hydrogen_ (full strength). These solutions should be applied immediately. A burn or scald should be covered at once with a paste of baking soda, with olive oil, or with a mixture of limewater and linseed oil. These tend to lessen the pain by keeping out the air and reducing the inflammation.

Summary of Changes in Blood within the Body.--We have already seen that red corpuscles in the lungs lose part of their load of carbon dioxide that they have taken from the tissues, replacing it with oxygen. This is accompanied by a change of color from purple (in blood which is poor in oxygen) to that of bright red (in richly oxygenated blood). Other changes take place in other parts of the body. In the walls of the food tube, especially in the small intestine, the blood receives its load of fluid food. In the muscles and other working tissues the blood gives up food and oxygen, receiving carbon dioxide and organic waste in return. In the liver, the blood gives up its sugar, and the worn-out red corpuscles which break down are removed (as they are in the spleen) from the circulation. In glands, it gives up materials used by the gland cells in their manufacture of secretions. In the kidneys, it loses water and nitrogenous wastes (_urea_). In the skin, it also loses some waste materials, salts, and water.

"The Effect of Alcohol on Body Heat.--It is usually believed that 'taking a drink' when cold makes one warmer. But such is not the case. In reality alcohol lowers the temperature of the body by dilating the blood vessels of the skin. It does this by means of its influence on the nervous system.

It is, therefore, a mistake to drink alcoholic beverages when one is extremely cold, because by means of this more bodily heat is allowed to escape.

"Because alcohol is quickly oxidized, and because heat is produced in the process, it was long believed to be of value in maintaining the heat of the body. A different view now prevails as the result of much observation and experiment.

Physiologists show by careful experiments that though the temperature of the body rises during digestion of food, it is lowered for some hours when alcohol is taken. The flush which is felt upon the skin after a drink of wine or spirits is due in part to an increase of heat in the body, but also to the paralyzing effect of the alcohol upon the capillary walls, allowing them to dilate, and so permitting more of the warm blood of the interior of the body to reach the surface. There it is cooled by radiation, and the general temperature is lowered."--MACY, _Physiology_.

Effect of Alcohol on Respiration.--Alcohol tends to congest the membrane of the throat and lungs. It does this by paralyzing the nerves which take care of the tiny blood vessels in the walls of the air tubes and air sacs. The capillaries become full of blood, the air s.p.a.ces are lessened, and breathing is interfered with. The use of alcohol is believed by many physicians to predispose a person to tuberculosis. Certainly this disease attacks drinkers more readily than those who do not drink. Alcohol interferes with the respiration of the cells because it is oxidized very quickly within the body as it is quickly absorbed and sent to the cells. So rapid is this oxidation that it interferes with the oxidation of other substances. Using alcohol has been likened to burning kerosene in a stove; the operation is a dangerous one.

Effects of Tobacco on Respiration.--Tobacco smoke contains the same kind of poisons as the tobacco, with other irritating substances added. It is extremely irritating to the throat; it often causes a cough, and renders it more liable to inflammation. If the smoke is inhaled more deeply, the vaporized nicotine is still more readily absorbed and may thus produce greater irritation in the bronchi and lungs. Cigarettes are worse than other forms of tobacco, for they contain the same poisons with others in addition.

Effect of Alcohol on the Kidneys.--It is said that alcohol is one of the greatest causes of disease in the kidneys. The forms of disease known as "fatty degeneration of the kidney" and "Bright's disease" are both frequently due to this cause. The kidneys are the most important organs for the removal of nitrogenous waste.

Alcohol unites more easily with oxygen than most other food materials, hence it takes away oxygen that would otherwise be used in oxidizing these foods. Imperfect oxidation of foods causes the development and retention of poisons in the blood which it becomes the work of the kidneys to remove. If the kidneys become overworked, disease will occur. Such disease is likely to make itself felt as rheumatism or gout, both of which are believed to be due to waste products (poisons) in the blood.

Poisons produced by Alcohol.--When too little oxygen enters the draft of the stove, the wood is burned imperfectly, and there are clouds of smoke and irritating gases. So, if oxygen unites with the alcohol and too little reaches the cells, instead of carbon dioxide, water, and urea being formed, there are other products, some of which are exceedingly poisonous and which the kidneys handle with difficulty. The poisons retained in the circulation never fail to produce their poisonous effects, as shown by headaches, clouded brain, pain, and weakness of the body. The word "intoxication"

means "in a state of poisoning." These poisons gradually acc.u.mulate as the alcohol takes oxygen from the cells. The worst effects come last, when the brain is too benumbed to judge fairly of their harm.

REFERENCE BOOKS

ELEMENTARY

Hunter, _Laboratory Problems in Civic Biology_. American Book Company.

Davison, _Human Body and Health_. American Book Company.

Gulick, _Hygiene Series, Emergencies, Good Health_. Ginn and Company.

Hough and Sedgwick, _The Human Mechanism_. Ginn and Company.

Macy, _General Physiology_. American Book Company.

Ritchie, _Human Physiology_. World Book Company.

XXIII. BODY CONTROL AND HABIT FORMATION

_Problems.--How is body control maintained?

(a) What is the mechanism of direction and control?

(b) What is the method of direction and control?

(c) What are habits? How are they formed and how broken?

(d) What are the organs of sense? What are their uses?

(e) How does alcohol affect the nervous system?_